IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


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Hiotographic 

Sciences 
Corporation 


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CIHM/ICMH 

Microfiche 

Series. 


CIHM/ICMH 
Collection  de 
microfiches. 


Canadian  Institute  for  Historical  Microreproductions  /  Institut  Canadian  de  microreproductions  historiques 


Technical  and  Bibliographic  Notes/Notes  techniques  et  bibliographiques 


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Covers  restored  and/or  laminated/ 
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I      I    Cover  title  missing/ 


Le  titre  de  couverture  manque 


I      I    Coloured  maps/ 


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Cartes  gdographiques  on  couleur 


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n 
n 

D 


V 


D 
D 
D 

D 


Coloured  pages/ 
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obtenir  la  meilleure  image  possible. 


The 
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first 
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begir 
right 
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This  item  is  filmed  at  the  reduction  ratio  checked  below/ 

Ce  document  est  filmd  au  taux  de  reduction  indiqud  ci-dessous. 


10X 

14X 

18X 

22X 

26X 

SOX 

1 

y 

12X 


16X 


20X 


24X 


28X 


32X 


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conformity  avec  les  conditit>ns  uu  contrat  de 
filmage. 


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shall  contain  the  symbol  -^(meaning  "CON- 
TINUED "),  or  the  symbol  y  (meaning  "END"), 
whichever  applies. 


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d'impression  ou  d'illustration  et  en  terminant  par 
la  dernidre  page  qui  comporte  une  telle 
empreinte. 

Un  des  symboles  sulvants  apparaitra  sur  la 
dernidre  image  de  cheque  microfiche,  selon  le 
cas:  le  symbole  — «»  signifie  "A  SUIVRE",  le 
symbole  V  signifie  "FIN". 


Maps,  plates,  charts,  etc.,  may  be  filmed  at 
different  reduction  ratios.  Those  too  large  to  be 
entirely  included  in  one  exposure  are  filmed 
beginning  in  the  upper  left  hand  corner,  left  to 
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required.  The  following  diagrams  illustrate  the 
method: 


Les  cartes,  planches,  tableaux,  etc.,  peuvent  dtre 
filmds  d  des  taux  de  rdduction  diff6rents. 
Lorsque  le  document  est  trop  grand  pour  dtre 
reproduit  en  un  seul  clichd,  il  est  filmd  A  partir 
de  Tangle  sup6rieur  gauche,  de  gauche  A  droite, 
et  de  haut  en  bas,  on  prenant  le  nombre 
d'images  ndcessaire.  Les  diagrammes  suivants 
illustrent  la  mdthode. 


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MEX'LVL   AW)   SOCIAL   CONDITION 


OF   SAVAGIS. 


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MENTAL  AND  SOCIAL  CONDITION  OF  SAVAGES. 


11 V 


Sill  JOnN  LUBBOCIv,  Bart.,  M.B.,  F.K.S. 

Am,o«   OK   '  ..uKMrsmmo  time,,   ktc.:   vic,.:-ruK«n.,cNr  ok   t„p   KTnvor^r,..r    . 


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APPLETON    AND    COMPANY, 

00,    92   &    94   OnANI)    STREET. 


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rnKFACK   TO   TIIK    AMKKICAN    KDITION. 


Of  all  the  :i]»|>li(atioMs  of  tlio  FciciilirK'  incthod  of  iiKiuiry, 
till'  latest,  the  iiiulit'st,  and  by  far  the  most  iiiiportant,  is  its 
a|>i»licatiou  to  the  study  of  man.  From  tlio  analysis  of  the  indi- 
vidual, bodily  and  mental,  in<|ULy  |>asses  to  the  eonsideratic-n 
of  human  nature  in  its  colleetive  and  related  aspeets.  ^Social- 
iti/t/  is  the  science  which  treats  of  the  natural  laws  of  liuman 
society  in  all  its  aspects.  J'Jthtiohnj}/  ujives  account  of  the  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  men,  and  deals  with  (pU'stions  of  race.  A/if/o'o- 
/>of<>(/i/  is  the  term  comprehensively  applied  to  the  natural  his- 
tory of  the  Imman  species,  and  professes  to  be  the  comjdeto 
science  of  man,  body  and  soul,  in  all  the  modilications  of  sex, 
temperament,  race,  eivili/ation,  etc.  This  vast  held  is  now 
be^imiii'iuj  to  be  actively  cultivated  in  the  true  scientilic  Hi)irit, 
that  is,  with  a  view  of  simply  ascertaining  what  are  the  laws 
of  the  ])henomena. 

Kminent  among  the  iiupiirers  in  this  domain  is  the  author 
of  tlie  present  work,  who  has  devoted  himself  to  researches  into 
the  origin  of  civilization  and  the  ]irimitivc  condition  of  man. 
In  his  lirst  work,  entitled  "  Prehistoric  Times,"  Sir  John  Lub- 
b(K-k  has  ]>resented  the  evicb'uces  that  remain  of  the  sttite  of 
mankind  before  the  period  of  au'hcntic  liistory.  In  the  present 
work  ho  enters  upon  an  impiiry  inio  the  state  of  the  e.\isting 
inferior  races,  and  ]>resents  a  view  of  the  nu'utal  and  social  con- 
dition of  savage  tribes. 


IV 


I'uurAr  r.. 


Ik'sidoH  Uio  curious  iiitori'sl  wljicli  always  pertains  to  in- 
formation ('ont'trninLf  tin*  lowt-r  grades  (•!"  our  KjK'ciis,  accurate 
inlorniatioii  ol'  tiiis  kind  has  iiuw  conn-  to  have  u  deep  phihw 
sophical  interest.  It  is  part  of  the  ^riind  researcli  into  the 
career  of  humanity  upon  earth — into  the  orii^^in,  nature,  and 
course  of  ci\  ili/ation.  Is  tiu're  a  (U'linile  and  assure<l  law  of 
progress  in  human  affairs — a  slow  and  "gradual  ascent  from  the 
lower  to  the  hiirher  V  ami  was  that  low  condition  of  humaiiit\, 
of  which  we  have  the  prehistoric  traces,  and  which  is  illustrated 
hy  the  |»resent  condition  of  savajjje  racis,  the  start in;;-point  of 
this   ascent  V  or  was   orimeval    man  a  <levelo|>ed   an<l  superior 


hein;^,  wlio  has  ri'trotrrjidcd  and  dej^eiu-rated  into  tlie  savaj^o 
state?  These  are  u;rave  (juestions  iu>w  im|)ending  in  th'' world 
of  thouj^ht,  and  which  are  of  ln<jjh  practical  interest;  for,  to 
know  the  fundamental  law  of  movenu'nt  in  humanity,  is  the  pre- 
recpiisite  of  all  wise  and  successful  nicasures  of  social  anuliora- 
tion. 

It  is  from  this  point  of  view  that  the  present  work  has  its 
hiujliest  sii^nifu'ance.  In  <^iving  us  a  detailed  and  trustworthy 
statement  of  the  mental  and  social  condition  of  the  lowest 
tribes,  it  contributes  indispensable  data  for  conclusions  respect- 
in<^  the  nature  and  <lestiny  of  man  upon  earth.  In  methodizing 
these  data,  and  siftini^  the  multifarious  evidence,  so  as  to  throw 
the  clearest  light  upon  the  art,  relij;ion,  morals,  lan^ua^e,  laws, 
and  social  habits  of  the  savaire  races,  the  author  has  made  a 


valuable  contribution  toward   the  scientific  treatment  of  the 

arne( 
portant  department  of  research. 


?d  the  thanks  of  all  students  in  this  im- 


Ntw  YoKK,  Ociobfr,  1870. 


l(>  111- 
•unito 

»)  ll»o 
0,  and 
aw  of 
»iii  the 
laiiitN, 
It  rat  til 
»int  of 
ijK'rior 
savajj;c 
•  worUl 
for,  to 
1k'  ])1v- 
luliura- 

luis  its 
worthy 

lowest 

rc's|)(H-t- 

odizing 

throw 

0,  hiws, 

uacU'  a 

of  the 
this  iiu- 


rREFACE. 


TX  my  work  on  '  rreliisti^ric  Times'  I  liavc  dovotod 
■^  several  c'liaptors  to  the  de^^criptioii  of  muderu 
savages,  beraiisc  tlie  woapous  and  implements  now 
used  by  the  lower  raoes  of  men  throw  much  light 
on  the  signifieution  and  use  of  those  diseovered  in 
ancient  tumuli,  or  in  the  drift  gravels  ;  and  because  a 
knowledge  of  modern  savages  and  their  modes  of  life 
enables  us  more  accurately  to  i)icture,  and  more  vividly 
to  conceive,  the  manners  and  customs  of  our  ancestors 
in  bygone  ages. 

In  the  present  volume,  which  is  founded  on  a  course 
of  lectures  delivered  at  tlie  Koyal  Institution  in  thespring 
of  18G8,  I  propose  more  particularly  to  describe  the 
social  and  mental  condition  of  savages,  their  art,  their 
systems  of  marriage  and  of  relationship,  their  religions, 
language,  moral  character,  and  laws.  Subsequently  I 
shall  hope  to  publish  those  portions  of  my  lectin*es 
which  have  reference  to  their  houses,  dress,  boats, 
arms,  implements,  &c.  From  the  very  nature  of  tho 
subjects   dealt  witii  in    the   present  volume,    I   shall 


vi 


PREFACE. 


liave  to  record  many  actions  and  ideas  veiy  abliori'cnt 
to  us ;  so  many  in  fact  that  if  I  pass  tlicm  without 
conuncnt  or  condemnation,  it  is  because  I  am  rehic- 
tant  to  fatigue  the  reader  by  a  wearisome  iteration 
of  disai)i)roval.  In  tlie  chapters  on  Marriage  and 
Rehgion  more  especially,  though  1  have  endeavoured  to 
avoid  everything  that  was  needlessly  offensive,  still  it 
was  impossible  not  to  mention  some  facts  which  are 
very  rej)ugnant  to  our  feelings.  Yet  were  I  to  express 
my  sentiments  in  some  cases,  my  silence  in  others  might 
be  held  to  imj)ly  indilTerence,  if  not  approval. 

Montesquieu  ^  commences  with  an  apology  that 
portion  of  his  great  work  which  is  devoted  to  Eeligion. 
As,  he  says,  'on  pent  jnger  parmi  les  tenebres  celles 
qui  sont  le?  moins  epaisses,  et  parmi  les  abimes  ceux 
qui  sont  les  moins  i)rofonds,  ainsi  Ton  pent  chercher 
entre  les  religions  fausses  celles  qui  sont  les  phis  con- 
formes  au  bien  de  la  societe  ;  celles  qui,  quoiqu'elles 
n'aient  pas  rcfTtt  de  mener  les  hommcs  aux  felicites  de 
I'autre  vie,  peuvcnt  le  plus  contribuer  a  leur  bonhcur 
dans  celle-ci.  Je  n'examinerai  done  les  diverses  religions 
du  monde  que  par  rapport  au  bien  que  Ton  en  tire  dans 
I'etit  civil,  soit  que  je  parle  de  celle  qui  a  sa  racine 
dans  le  ciel,  ou  bien  de  celles  qui  ont  la  leur  sur  la 
terre.'  The  difTiculty  which  I  have  felt  has  taken  a 
different  form,  but  I  deem  it  necessary  to  say  these 

•  '  Esprit  (les  Lois,'  liv.  xxiv.  ch.  1. 


PnEFACE. 


Vll 


il)liorrcnt 
I  without 
iin  rcluc- 
iteralioii 
•iage  and 
Lvoiired  to 
vc,  still  it 
vliich  are 
to  exi)ress 
lers  might 

ilofiy   that 
)  Religion. 
)res  cellcs 
imes  ceiix 
chcrchcr 
plus  con- 
uoiqu'c'lles 
L'licites  do 
L"  boiiheur 
s  religious 
1  tire  dans 
sa  raciue 
?ur  sur  la 
s  taken  a 
say  these 


few  words  of  explanation,  lest  I  should  be  supposed  to 
approve  that  wliieh  I  do  not  expressly  condemn. 

Kleuim,  in  his  '.Allgemeine  Culturgesehichte  der 
Menschen,'  and  recetitly  Mr.  Wood,  in  a  more  popular 
manner  ('  Natural  History  of  Man  '),  have  described  the 
vai'ious  races  of  man  consecutively ;  a  system  which  has 
its  advantages,  but  which  does  not  well  bring  out  the 
general  stages  of  progress  in  civilisation. 

Various  other  works,  amongst  which  I  mu<t  s[)ecially 
mention  Mailer's  '  Geschichte  der  Aniericanischeu 
Urreligioncn,'  'M'Lennan's  Primitive  Marriage,'  and 
Ikchofen's  'Das  Muti,errecht,'  deal  with  particular  por- 
tions of  the  subject.  Maine's  interesting  work  on  '  An- 
cient Law./  again,  considers  man  in  a  more  advanced 
stage  than  that  which  is  the  special  subject  of  my  work. 

The  plan  pursued  by  Tylor  in  his  remarkable  work 
on  the  'Early  History  of  Mankind,'  more  nearly  re- 
sembles that  which  I  have  sketcheu  out  for  myself, 
but  the  subject  is  one  which  no  two  minds  would 
view  in  the  same  manner,  and  is  so  vast  that  I  am 
sure  my  friend  wdl  not  regard  me  as  intruding  on  a 
field  which  he  has  done  so  much  to  make  his  own. 

Nor  must  I  omit  to  mention  Lord  Karnes'  '  History 
of  Man,'  and  Montesquieu's  '  Esprit  des  Lois,'  both 
of  them  works  of  great  interest,  although  written  at  a 
time  when  our  knowledge  of  savage  races  was  even 
more  imperfect  than  it  is  now. 


VIU 


PREFACE. 


Yet  the  mtiterial.s  for  such  a  work  as  tlio  present 
nre  immense,  and  arc  daily  increasing.  Those;  in- 
terested in  tlie  subject  become  cveiy  year  more  and 
more  numerous ;  and  wliilc  none  of  my  readers  can  be 
more  sensible  of  my  deficiencies  than  I  am  myself,  yet 
nfter  ten  years  of  study,  I  liavc  been  anxious  to  publish 
this  portion  of  my  work,  in  the  hope  tliat  it  may  con- 
trib''.le  sometliing  towards  the  progress  of  a  science 
which  is  in  itself  of  the  deepest  inteiest,  and  which  has 
a  peculiar  importance  to  an  Em})ire  such  as  ours,  com- 
prising races  in  every  stage  of  civili.sati(jn  j-et  attained 
by  man. 


lliou  Ei.Ms,  Down,  Kknt: 
Fibruavy,  1870. 


m 


CONTENTS. 


CMAP. 

r-AOH 

I. 

Iniroductiox 

•        •        . 

1 

ir. 

Art  and  Ornaments 

•        t        . 

25 

III. 

Mauriaoe  and  I^elationship  .       , 

•        •       •        • 

no 

IV. 

IlELioroN 

•        •        .        . 

114 

V. 

Religion  {continvcd) 

0       •        •        • 

158 

VI. 

Relioion  (cmidudcil) 

•        •        •        . 

L'la 

VII. 

Character  and  Morals  . 

•'       •        .        . 

257 

VIII. 

Language         

• 

» 

27.3 

IX. 

Laws 

• 

300 

AlTEXDIX 

•        •        .        . 

325 

Notes 

•        •        .        . 

3G3 

INDEX 


.    SG7 


* 


in  I 


ILLUSTEATIONS 


DESCRirnON   OF  THE  PLATES. 

FI.ATK  PAGK 

Giu»up  OF  Sacrkp  Stones  in  the  Dekhan.    After  Forbes  Leslie.    '  Early 

Races  of  Scotland;  vol.  ii.  p.  460      ....      Frontispiece. 

I.     Sketch  of  Mammoth,  on   a  piece  of  ivory,  found  in  the  Rock- 
shelter  at  La  Madclaine,  in  the  Dordogno         .         .     To  face      25 

II.     FEiyEEAK  Modes  of  Dressing  the  IIaih.   After  "Williams.   'Fiji 

and  the  Fijians,'  p.  158 To  face       48 

III.  Austraman   Marriacje   Ceremony.     After  Freycinct.     •  Voyage 

autourdu  Monde,' pi.  104 To  face       7t 

IV.  Indian  Sacred  Stones,     After  Forb.'S  Leslie.     'Early  Races  of 

Scutluud,'  vol.  ii.  p.  4G4 To  face     20G 


DESCRIPTION  OF  TUE  FIGURES. 

»''<'•  PAGE 

1.     Group  of  Reindeer.     From  a  photograph   presented  to   me  by 
M.  le  Marquis  de  Vibrayo 


2-4.  Drawings  on  Esquimaux  Bone  Driixtsows.     Presented   to   tho 
Ashmolean  Museum  at  Oxford,  by  Captain  Beeehcy . 

5.     North  American  Indian  Census  Roll.   After  Schoolcraft.  '  His- 
tory of  the  Indian  Tribes,'  vol.  ii.  p.  222 


6.  Indian  Gravepost.     After  Schoolcraft 

Tribes,'  a'oI.  i.  p.  356 

7.  Indian  Gravepost.     After  Schoolcraft, 

Tribes,'  vol.  i.  p.  356 


'Ilistory  of  the  Indian 

•  •  a  «  • 

'  History  of  the  Indian 


26 


27 


33 


35 


35 


Xll  LIST   OP   ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FIfl.  TAOB 

8.  Indian  r>AHKr.KTTKR.     Aftor  .Schoolcruft.     '  History  of  tlio  Indian 

Tribes,'  vol.  i.  p.  338 36 

9.  Indian  HAnKi-ETTEB.     After  Schoolcraft,     '  History  of  tlio  Indian 

Tribes,'  vol.  i.  p.  336 37 

10.  Indian  Barki,f.ttp;r.     Aftor  Sclionlcnift.     *  History  of  the  Indian 

Tribes,'  vol.  i.  p.  336 38 

1 1.  Indian  Pktition.      After  Schoolcraft.     '  History   of  the   Indian 

Tribes,'  vol.  i.  p.  416 39 

12.  Carom NE  Isi.andeu.   After  Frcycinct.    '  Voyage  autoiir  du  Monde,' 

pi.  57 46 

13.  New   Zealand   Head.      After  Frcycinct.      'Voyage    autour    du 

Monde,'  pi.  107 47 

14.  New  Zealand   Head.      Aftor    Froycinet.      '  Voyage   autour    du 

Monde,'  pi.  107 -17 

15-17.  Shoitlder-hlades  prepared    fob   Divination.     After  Klcmm, 

'  All.  Cultur.  d.  Mens.' vol.  iii.  p.  200 143 

18.  A  Sacred  Dance  of  the  VmoiNiANS.    Lafitau,  vol.  ii.  p.  135      .     156 

19.  Agoye.     An   Idol  of  Whiddah.     Astley's   '  Coll.   of    Voyages,' 

vol.  iii.  p.  50 178 

20.  Sacred  Stones.     Fiji  Islands.     Williams, /oc.  ciY.  vol.  i.  p.  220       .     211 


U 


Add 
Araj^ 
th 
Asia 
Astl( 
I     Atkii 

Bach 

I3ain 

*     Bake 

Batt( 

kei 
\     Beecl 

Pa 
Bosni 

kei 
Brett 
Brool 
Bruc( 
Burcl 
(.     Burtc 


•» 

Mc 


Cailli 

Calk' 

Are 

y    Camp 

lan< 

I    Carve 

Casal; 

I    Catlii 


36 


4 


37 


38 


39 


^ 


LIST  OF  THE  nilNTIPAL  WOrtKS  QUOTED 
U  THIS  VOLUME. 


/    V 


40 
47 
47 

143 
156 

178 
211 


|v 


Aflclung,     Milhritlatpfi. 

Anago,   Narnitivo   of  ii  Voyiigo   round 

tho  World. 
Asiatic  Researches. 
Astley,  Colli'olion  of  Voyap;os. 
I     Atkinson,  Oriental  and  Western  Siberia. 

Bachofcn,  Das  Muttorrecht. 
Bain,  Mental  and  Moral  Science. 
Baker,  Albert  Nyanza. 

„      Nile  Tributaries  of  Abyssinia. 
Battel,  The  strange  Adventures  of,  (I'in- 

korton's  Voyages  and  Travels). 
Beechey,  Narrative  of  a  Voyage  to  the 

Pacific. 
Bosnian,    Description  of  Guinea  (Pin- 

kerton's  Voyages  and  Travels), 
Brett,  Indian  Tribes  of  Guiana. 
Brooke,  Lapland, 
v^   Bruce,  Travels  in  Abyssinia. 

Burchell,  Travels  in  Southern  Africa. 
t    Burton,  Lake  Regions  of  Africa. 
,,       First  Footsteps  in  Africa. 
.,       Abbeokuta   and   the   Ca'.icron 
Mountains. 
„       City  of  the  Saints. 

Cailli^,  Travels  to  Timbuctoo. 

Callaway,  Religious  System  of  the 
Amazulu. 

Campbell,  Tales  of  the  West  High- 
lands. 

Carver,  Travels  in  North  America. 

Casalis,  The  Basutos. 

Catlin,  North  American  Indians. 


[U 


V 


Chapman,  Travels  in  S.  Africa. 
Cliarlevoix,  History  of  Paraguay. 
Clarke,  Travels. 
Collins,    English    Colony    in    Now    S, 

Wales. 
Cook,  Voyage  round  tho  World.     (In 

Uawkcsworth's  Voyages.) 

„      Second  Voyage  towards  the  South 

Pole. 

„     Third  Voyage  to  tho  Pacific  Ocean.    (• 
Cox,  ^lanual  of  Mythology. 
Crantz,  History  of  Greenland. 

Darwin,    Animals    and    Plants    under 

Domesti  ation. 
„        Origin  of  Species. 
,,        Researches    in  Geology   and 

Natural  History. 
Davis,  Dr.  J.  B.,  Thesaurus  Craniorum. 
Davis,  The  Chinese. 
Davy,  Account  of  Ceylon. 
Tk>    Brosses,     Du    Culte    dos    Dicux 

Fetiches. 
Denham,  Tiarels  in  Africa. 
Dias,  Diccionario  da  Lingua  Tupy. 
Dieffenbach,  New  Zealand. 
DobrizhoflFer,  History  of  the  Abipones. 
Drury,  Adventures  in  Madagascar. 
Dubois,  Description  of  the  People  of 

India. 
Dunn,  The  Oregon  Territory. 
Dulaure,   Histoire   Abregeo   des  diffe- 

rentes  Cultes. 
D'Urville,  Voyage  an  Pole  Sud. 
Karle,  Residence  in  New  Zealand. 


XIV 


LIST   OF    WOKKS    QUOTED. 


Kj^nlc,  fircpnliiiul. 
\y  Ellis,  Three  Visits  to  Madiipavcar. 
v^        „     I'olynosian  Ut'scarchcs. 

Erman,  Travels  in  Silioria. 

ICrskino,  AVostorn  racific. 

Eyro,  Uiscovorics  in  Central  Australia. 

Farrar,  Origin  of  Langijac*. 
Forgusson,  Tree  ami  .Sorpont  Worship. 
Fitzroy,    Voyage    of    the  'Advculure' 

and  'JJoaglc' 
Forbes  Leslie,  Early  Races  of  Scotland. 
Forster,  Observations   niado   during   a 

Voyage  round  the  World. 
'     Franklin,  Journey  to  the  Shores  of  the 

Polar  Sea. 
Fraser,  Travels  in  Koordistun  and  Mo- 

sopotaniia. 
Freycinot,  Voyage  autour  du  Monde. 

CFaius,  Commentaries  on  Roman  Law. 
Gama,  Descripoion  Ilistorica  y  Crono- 

logiea  do  las  Pedras  do  Mexico. 
Gibbs,  II.IL,  Romance  of  the  Chevelero 

Assigno. 
Girad-Teulon,  La   Mire  choz  certains 

Peuplos  do  I'Antiquite. 
Gladstone,  Juvcntus  Mundi. 
Goguet,  Do  rOrigino  des  Lois,  dcsArts, 

et  des  Sciences. 
Graah,  Voyage  to  Greenland. 
Gray,  Travels  in  Western  Africa. 
Grey,  Sir  G.,  Polynesian  Mythology. 

„  Journal  of  two  Expeditions 

of   Discovery    in    North-West    and 

Western  Australia. 

Ilale,  Ethnology  of  the  United  States 
Exploring  Expedition. 
'     Hallam,  History  of  England. 

Hanway,  Travels  in  Persia. 
^-  Hayes,  Open  Polar  Sea, 

Hawkesworth,  Voyages  of  Discovery  in 
the  Southern  Hemisphere. 

Hearne,  Voyage  to  the  Northern  Ocean. 
^  Herodotus. 

Hill,  Travels  in  Siberia. 

Hooper,  Tents  of  the  Tuski. 


IIumb(»ldt,  Personal  Researches. 
Hunter,  Comparative  Dictionary  of  tho 

Non-Aryan  Languages  of  Lidia  and 

]Iigh  Asia. 
Hume,  Kssays. 

„      History  of  England. 

Iiiman,    Ancient     Faiths     in    Ancient 
Names. 

James,  Expedition  to  tho  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. 
Journal  of  the  Royal  Listitulion. 
Jukes,  Voyage  of  tho  'Fly.' 

Kames,  History  of  Man. 

Kenrick,  Pha'uieia. 

Keppel,  V'isit  to  the  Indian  Archipelago. 

,,      Expedition  to  IJorneo. 
Klemm,   AUgemeino    Culturgeschiehto 

der  Menschheit. 
„        Workzeuge  und  Waffcn. 
Koelle,  Polyglotta  Afrieana. 
Kolben,  History  of  tho  Capo  of  Good 

Hope. 
Kolff,  Voyage  of  tho  'Dourga.' 
Kotzebue,  Voyage  round  the  World.         i/ 

Labat,  Voyage  aux  Isles  de  I'Ameriquo. 
Ljifitau,  Ma>urs  des   Sauvages  Ameri- 

cains. 
Laird,  Expedition  into  the  Interior  of   ^ 

Africa. 
Lander  (R  and  J.),  Niger  Expedition.      \/ 
Lang,  Aborigines  of  Australia. 
Latham,  Descriptive  Ethnology. 
Lecky,  History  of  Rationalism. 
Lewin,  Hill  Tracts  of  Chittagong. 
Lichtenstein,  Travels  in  South  Africa. 
Lubbock,  Prehistoric  Times. 
Lyon,  Journal  during  tho  Voyage  of    <^ 

Captain  Parry. 

McGillivray,   Voyage   of   the   •  Rattle- 
snake.' 
M'Lennan,  Primitive  Marriage. 
Maine,  Ancient  Law. 
Marsden,  History  of  Sumatra. 


LIST   OF    WORKS    QUOTKD. 


Xf 


Vhrs.  ^ 

»n.iry  of  tlio 
f  India  Hiid 


in    Ancient 

fX'ky  Moiin- 
ilion. 


irchipclago. 

0. 

I'gescliiohte 

affln. 

)e  of  Good 

%: 

World.         i/ 

'Ameriquo. 
;os  Aiueri- 

[ntcrior  of   ^ 

pcdition.      \/ 

n. 

?y- 

n. 

ong. 

h  Africa. 


''oyago  of 


Eattle- 


V 


I 


■J     V- 


Marinpir,  Tonga  iKlandM. 

M.irtiuH,  Von  dcni  Rcohtszustandc  untcr 

don  Urcinwohncrn  Urasilions. 
I^IoruUa,   Voyage    to    Congo    (Pinker- 
ton's  Voyagos  and  Travels). 
Metz,  Tribes  of  the  NeilghorrioH. 
]\lttlalikatlah,  published  by  the  Church 

Mi.Hsionary  Society. 
Middendorf,  Sibiriseho  Tleiso. 
Munboddo,  Origin  and  Progress  of  lian- 

guage. 
Montesquieu,  Esprit  des  Lois. 
Moscr,  The  Caucasus  and  its  People. 
Moor,   Notices  of    the   Indian   Ar     i- 

pelago. 
Mouhot,  Travels  in  the  Central  Parts 

of  Indo-China. 
Miiller  (Max),  Chips  from  a  German 

Workshop. 

„  Lectures  on  Language, 

First  Series. 

,,  Lectures  on  Language, 

Second  Series. 
Midler  (F.  G.),  Geschichto  der  Ameri- 

kanischen  Urreligionen. 

Nilsson,  On  the  Stone  Ago. 
Olaus  Magnus. 

Pallas,  Voyages  en  diffcrentes  Provinces 
de  I'Empire  de  Russie. 
„     Voyages  entropris  dans  les  Gou- 
vemements  raeridionaux  do  rj'^nipiro 
de  Kiissie. 

Park,  Travels. 

Parkyns,  Life  in  Abyssinia. 

Perouse,  Voyage  autour  du  M  mdo. 

Pliny,  Natural  History. 

Prescott,  Ilistory  of  I'eru. 
„        Ilistory  of  Mexico. 

Prichard,  Natural  Ilistory  of  Man. 

Proceedings  of  the  American  Academy 
of  Arts  and  Sciences. 

Proceedings  of  the  Boston   Society  of 
Natural  History. 

Proyart,   History  of  Loango  (Pinker- 
ton's  Voyages  and  Travels). 


Rnffles,  History  of  .lava.  \y 

Reade,  Savage  Afrieii. 
lienan,  Origin  du  Langiige. 
h'iohardson,  .Journal  «)f  a  IJoat  Journey 
Kobertson,  History  of  America. 

Seherzer,  Voyage  of  the  '  Novara.' 
Sehoolcraft,  Indian  Tribes.  [^ 

Seemann,  A  Mission  to  Fiji. 
Smith,  A.,  Tlieory  of  Moral  Sentiments, 

and   Dissertation   on    the    Origin    of 

Langiinges. 
„      (r.    (IJishop   of    Victoria),    Ton 

Weeks  in  Japan. 
,,      I.  History  of  Virginia. 
,,       W.,  Voyage  to  Guinea. 
Smitlisonian  Reports, 
Snowden  and  Prall,   Grammar  of  tho 

Mpongwe  Language.     New  York. 
Speke,  Discovery  of  tho  Source  of  tho  v^ 

Nile. 
Spiers,  Life  in  Ancient  India. 
Spix  and  Martins,  Travels  in  Rrazil. 
Sproat,  Scones  and  Studies  of  Savage 

Life. 
Squiers,  Serpent  Symbol  in  America.         U- 
Stephens,  Soutli  Australia.  ^-■ 

Stvn-enson,  Travels  in  South  America. 
Strahlenberg,   Description    of   Russia, 

Siberia,  and  Great  Tartary. 
Systems  of  Land  Tenure.  Published  by 

the  Cobdcn  Club. 


Tacitus. 

Tanner,  Narrative  of  a  Captivity  among 
the  North  American  Indians. 

Taylor,  New  Zealand  and  its  Inhabi- 
tants. 

Tertro,  History  of  the  Caribby  Islands. 

Tindall,   Grammar   and  Dictionary   of 
the  Namaqua  (Hottentot)  Language. 

Transactions  of  the  Americ.  Antiq.  Soc. 

Transactions  of  tho  Ethnological  Society. 

Transactions  of  tho  R.  S.  of  Victoria. 

Tylor,  Anahuiie. 

„    Early  History  of  Man. 

Upham,  History  and  Doctrine  of  Budd- 
hism in  Ceylon. 


y 


XVI 


LIST   OP   WORKH    QUOTKD. 


Viiiiroiivor,  Voyiipo  of  Discovery. 
Vogt,  liL'clureH  on  Miin. 

Waifz,  Aiifhropolopy. 

Walliico,  Tmvolu  in  tlio  Amazon.s  and 
Ilio  Ncpro. 
,,       Malay  Aroliipclacfo, 

Watson     and    Kayo,    The   IVopIo    of 
India. 

Wodgwood,  Introdnok'on  totlio  Diction- 
ary of  tho  Englibh  Laiigiiago. 


What.'ly     (.Archl.i.xlinp     of     Dublin), 

Political  Economy. 
Whipplo,  Kcport  on  the  Indian  Trilics. 
WilkpH,  United  ytalCN'  Exploring  Expo-    ^ 

dition. 
WillianiH,  Fiji  and  the  Fijians. 
AVood,  Natural  History  of  Man. 
Wrangol,  .Siberia  and  the  I'olar  Sea.        ■«-/ 
Wright,  Superstitions  of  England, 

Yato,  New  Zealand. 


Erratum, 

Piige  87,  for  Dulaure,  vol.  i.  p  2G0  read  vol.  U. 


'  ii 


Dublin), 

I  TrilicH. 
llg  I'lxjio-     ^ 


nd. 


^y 


THE   ORIGIN   OF   CIVILISATION 


&c. 


CIUrTEU   I. 


In.  /uy  )ft 


I  N  T  R  0  D  U  C  T  I  0  X. 


THE  study  of  the  lower  races  of  men,  apart  from  tlie 
direct  importance  wliicli  it  possesses  in  an  empire  like 
ours,  is  of  great  interest  from  three  points  of  view.  In  the 
first  place,  the  condition  and  habits  of  existing  savages 
resemble  in  many  ways,  though  not  in  all,  those  of  our 
own  ancestors  in  a  period  now  long  gone  by;  in  the 
second,  they  illustrate  much  of  what  is  passing  among 
ourselves,  many  customs  which  have  evidently  no  relation 
to  present  circumstances,  and  even  some  ideas  which  are 
rooted  in  our  minds,  as  fossils  are  imbedded  in  the  soil ; 
and  thirdly,  we  can  even,  by  means  of  them,  penetrate 
some  of  that  mist  which  separates  the  present  from  the 
future. 

Well,  therefore,  has  it  been  observed  by  Maine,  in  his 
excellent  work  on  *  Ancient  Law,'  that,  *  even  if  they  gave 
more  trouble  than  they  do,  no  pains  would  be  wasted 
in  ascertaining  the  germs  out  of  which  has  assuredly 
been  unfolded  every  form  of  moral  restraint  wliich  con- 
trols our  actions  and  shapes  our  conduct  at  the  present 


S  IMPORTANCE   OP  THE   fiUnJECT. 

moinont.  The  riuliincnts  ol'  thf  .social  stiiti',  so  far  as  tliey 
are  known  to  us  at  all,  arc  known  through  testimony  oftlirocj 
sorts — accounts  by  contemporary  observers  of  civilisations 
less  advanced tban  tlieir  own,  the  rec(>rds  wlii<li  particular 
races  have  preserved  concerning,'  their  primitive  hist«»ry, 
and  anci«'nt  law.  The  first  kind  of  evi«lence  is  the  best 
we  could  liavo  expected.  As  societies  do  not  advance  con- 
currently, but  at  ditterent  rates  of  proj:^ress,  there  have 
been  epochs  at  wliich  men  trained  to  habits  of  metho«lical 
observation  have  really  been  in  a  position  to  watch  and 
describe  the  infancy  of  maidcind.''  He  refers  particidarly  to 
Tacitus,  wlioni  he  praises  for  havinjj  *made  the  most  of  such 
an  opportunity;'  adding',  however,  'but  the  "  Germany," 
unlike  most  celebrated  classical  books,  has  not  induced 
others  to  follow  the  excellent  examjde  set  by  its  author, 
and  the  amount  of  this  sort  of  testimony  wliich  w^e  possess 
is  exceedingly  small.' 

This  is  very  far,  1  '♦wevcr,  from  being  the  case ;  at  all 
epochs  some  *  men  trained  to  habits  of  methodical  observa- 
tion have  really  been  in  a  position  to  watch  and  describe 
the  infancy  of  mankind,'  and  the  testimony  of  our  modern 
travellers  is  of  the  same  sort  as  that  for  which  we  are  in- 
debted to  Tacitus.  It  is,  indeed,  much  to  be  regretted  that 
Mr.  Maine,  in  his  admirable  work,  did  not  more  extensively 
avail  himself  of  this  source  of  information,  for  an  acquaint- 
ance with  the  laws  and  customs  of  modern  savages  would 
have  enabled  him  greatly  to  strengthen  his  arguments 
on  some  points,  while  it  vv^ould  certainly  have  modified  his 
views  on  others.  Thus  he  lays  it  down  as  an  obvious 
proposition  that  *the  organisation  of  primitive  societies 
would  have  been  confounded,  if  men  had  called  themselves 
relatives  of  tlieir  mother's  relatives,'  while  I  shall  jjre- 

'  Miiine's  Ancient  Law,  p.  120. 


m 


^ 


DIFFICl'LTY    or    THK    SHFUKCT. 


»> 


di'uWy  sliow  tliat,  us  iiuL'cd  Mr.  Mcr.i'miini  li:is  nlrcady 
jH>intt'd  out,  rohitiousliip  throu^^li  ttiiialcs  \h  ji  eoiniiiuii 
custom  of  savntro  coiniiiunitit's  all  ovi-r  tin*  world. 

But  thou«,'U  our  iuforniatioii  with  rcferonce  to  the  social 
and  moral  condition  of  the  lower  races  of  man  is  much 
more  considerable  than  Mr.  Maine  sujiposcd,  it  is  certainly 
very  far  from  beiu},'  satisfactory  either  in  extent  or  in 
accuracy.  Travellers  naturally  find  it  far  easier  to  describe 
the  houses,  boats,  food,  dress,  wcsipons,  and  implenunits  of 
aavajj^es,  tlian  to  understand  their  thou^'hts  and  feclin^j^s. 
The  wholo  mental  condition  of  a  sava^^o  is  so  different  from 
ours,  that  it  is  often  very  diflieult  to  follow  what  is  passing' 
in  his  mind,  or  to  understand  the  motives  by  which  he  is 
influenced.  Many  things  appear  natural  and  almost  self- 
evident  to  him,  which  produce  a  very  difterent  impression 
on  us.  *  What ! '  said  a  negro  to  Burton,  *  am  I  to  starve, 
while  my  sister  has  children  whom  she  can  sell  i^' 

Though  savages  always  have  a  reason,  such  as  it  is,  for 
what  they  do  and  what  they  believe,  their  reasons  often 
are  very  absurd.  Moreover,  the  difiiculty  of  ascertaining 
what  is  passing  in  their  minds  is  of  course  much  enhanced 
by  the  difficulty  of  jommunicating  with  them.  This  has 
produced  many  laughable  mistakes.  Thus,  when  Labil- 
lardiere  enquired  of  the  Friendly  Islanders  the  word  for 
1,000,000,  they  seem  to  have  thought  the  question  absurd, 
and  gave  him  one  which  apparently  has  no  meaning; 
when  he  asked  for  10,000,000,  thoy  said  *  looole,'  which  I 
will  leave  unexplained ;  for  100,000,000  *  laounoua,'  that 
is  to  say,  *  nonsense  ; '  while  for  the  higher  numbers  they 
gave  him  certain  coarse  expressions,  >vhicli  he  has  gravely 
published  in  his  table  of  numerals. 

A  mistake  made  by  Dampier  led  to  more  sevious  results. 
lie  had  met  some  Australians,  and  apprehending  an  at- 
tack, he  says  : — *  I  discharged  my  gun  to  scare  them,  but 


Ill, 


4  INACTIVITY   OF   THE 

avoided  shooting  any  of  tliem ;  till  finding  the  young  man 
in  great  danger  from  them,  and  myself  in  some,  and  that 
though  the  gun  had  a  little  frightened  them  at  first,  yet 
they  had  soon  learnt  to  despise  it,  tossing  up  their  hands, 
and  ci-ying,  "  pooh,  pooh,  pooh ; "  and  coming  on  afresh 
with  a  great  noise,  I  thought  it  high  time  to  charge  again, 
and  shoot  one  of  them,  which  I  did.  The  rest,  seeing  him 
fall,  made  a  stand  again,  and  my  young  man  took  the 
opportunity  to  disengage  himself,  and  come  off  to  me ;  my 
other  man  also  was  with  me,  who  had  done  nothing  all 
this  while,  having  come  out  unarmed ;  and  I  returned 
back  with  my  men,  designing  to  attempt  the  natives  no 
farther,  being  very  sorry  for  what  had  happened  already.'  * 
Pooh,  pooh,  however,  or  puff,  puff,  is  the  name  which 
savages,  like  children,  naturally  apply  to  guns. 

Another  source  of  error  is  that  savages  are  often  re- 
luctant to  contradict  what  is  said  to  them.  Thus  Mr. 
Oldfield,^  speaking  of  the  Australians,  tells  us : — '  T  have 
found  this  habit  of  non-contradiction  to  stand  very  much 
in  my  way  when  making  enquiries  of  them;  for,  as  my 
knowledge  of  their  language  was  only  sufficient  to  enable 
me  to  seek  information  on  some  points  by  putting  sugges- 
tive questions,  in  which  they  immediately  concurred,  I  was 
frequently  driven  nearly  to  my  wits'  end  to  arrive  at  the 
truth.  A  native  once  brought  me  in  some  specimens  of 
a  species  of  eucalyptus,  and  being  desirous  of  ascertaining 
the  habit  of  the  plant,  I  asked,  "  A  tall  tree  ?  "  to  which 
his  ready  answer  was  in  the  affirmative.  Not  feeling  quite 
satisfied,  I  again  demanded,  "  A  low  bush '? "  to  which 
"  yes  "  was  also  the  response.' 

Again,  the  mind  of  the  savage,  like  that  of  the  child, 
is  easily  fatigued,  and  he  will  then  give  random  answers  to 


'  Pitikcrton's  Voyages,  vol.  xi.  p.  473.     '  Trans.  Ethn.  Soc.  N.S.  vol.  iii.  p.  255. 


SAVAGE    INTELLECT. 


spare  himself  tlie  troul)Ie  of  tliouglit.  Speaking  of  the 
Ahts  (N.W.  America),  Mr.  Sproat '  says: — 'The  native 
mind,  to  an  educated  man,  seems  generally  to  be  asleep ; 
and,  if  you  suddenly  ask  a  novel  question,  you  have  to 
repeat  it  while  the  mind  of  the  savage  is  awaking,  and  to 
speak  with  emphasis  until  he  has  quite  got  your  meaning. 
This  may  partly  arise  from  the  questioner's  imperfect 
knowledge  of  the  language;  still,  I  chink,  not  entirely, 
as  the  savage  may  be  observed  occasionally  to  become 
forgetful,  when  voluntarily  communicating  information. 
On  his  attention  being  fully  aroused,  he  often  shows 
much  quickness  in  reply  a^l  ingenuity  in  argument.  But 
a  short  conversation  wearies  him,  particularly  if  questions 
are  asked  that  require  efforts  of  thought  or  memory  on 
his  part.  The  mind  of  the  savage  then  appears  to  rock 
to  and  fro  out  of  mere  weakness,  and  he  tells  lies  and  talks 
nonsense.' 

'  I  frequently  enquired  of  the  negroes,'  says  Park,  '  what 
became  of  the  sun  during  the  night,  and  whether  we 
should  see  the  same  sun,  or  a  different  one,  in  the 
morning;  but  I  found  that  they  considered  the  question 
as  very  childish.  The  subject  appeared  to  them  as  placed 
beyond  the  reach  of  human  investigation ;  they  had  never 
indulged  a  conjecture,  nor  formed  any  hypothesis,  about 
the  matter.' " 

Such  ideas  are,  in  fact,  entirely  beyond  the  mental 
range  of  the  lower  savages,  whose  extreme  mental  in- 
feriority we  have  much  difficulty  in  realising. 

Speaking  of  the  wild  men  in  the  interior  of  Borneo,  Mr. 
Dalton  says  that '  they  are  found  living  "^  absolutely  in  a 
state  of  nature,  who  neither  cultivate  the  ground,  nor  live 


p.  2,05. 


'  Scenos  and    Studios    of    Savago 
Lifo,  p.  120. 

'  Park's  Travels,  vol.  i.  p.  265. 


*  Moor's  Noticps  of  tho  Indian 
Army,  p.  49.  Soo  also  Keppel's  Ex* 
pedition  to  Borneo,  vol.  ii.  p.  x. 


;•  I 


6 


CONDITION    OF   THE 


in  huts ;  who  neither  eat  rice  nor  salt,  and  who  do  not 
associate  with  each  other,  hut  rove  about  some  woods,  like 
wild  beasts ;  the  sexes  meet  in  the  junfjle,  or  the  man 
caiTies  away  a  woman  from  some  campong.  When  the 
children  are  old  enough  to  shift  for  themselves,  they 
usually  separate,  neither  one  afterwards  thinking  of  the 
oilier :  at  night  they  sleep  under  some  large  tree,  the 
branches  of  which  hang  low.  On  these  they  fasten  tlie 
children  in  a  kind  of  swing  ;  around  the  tree  they  make  a 
fire  to  keep  off  the  wild  beasts  and  snakes, — they  cover 
themselves  with  a  piece  of  bark,  and  in  this  also  they  wrap 
their  children ;  it  is  soft  and  warm,  but  will  not  keep  out 
the  rain.  The  poor  creatures  are  looked  on  and  treated 
by  the  other  Dyaks  as  wild  beasts.' 

Lichtenstein  thus  describes  a  Bushman  : — '  One  of  our 
presen"*-  guests,  who  appeared  about  fifty  years  of  age, 
who  had  grey  hair  and  a  bristly  beard,  whose  forehead, 
nose,  cheeks,  and  chin  were  all  smeared  over  with  black 
grease,  having  only  a  white  circle  round  the  eye  washed 
clean  with  the  tears  occasioned  by  smoking — tbisman  had 
the  true  physiognomy  of  the  small  blue  ape  of  Caffraria. 
What  gives  the  more  verity  to  such  n.  comparison  was 
the  vivacity  of  his  eyes,  and  the  flexibility  of  his  eyebrows, 
which  he  worked  up  and  down  with  every  change  of 
countenance.  Even  his  nostrils  and  the  corners  of  his 
mouth,  nay  his  very  ears,  moved  involuntarily,  express- 
ing his  hasty  transitions  from  eager  desire  to  watch- 
ful distrust.  There  was  not,  on  the  contrary,  a  single 
feature  in  his  r-ountenance  that  evinced  a  consciousness  of 
mental  powers,  or  anything  that  denoted  emotions  of  the 
7flind  of  a  milder  species  than  what  belong  to  man  in  his 
mere  animal  nature.  When  a  piece  of  meat  was  given  him, 
and  half  rising  he  stretched  out  a  distrustful  arm  to  take 
it,  he  snatched  it  hastily,  and  stuck  it  immediately  into 


..>,.« 


-i 


do  not 
•ds,  liko 
:io  man 
len  the 
s,  tLoy 

of  the 
'ce,  the 
ten  the 
make  a 
y  cover 
;y  wrap 
eep  out 
treated 

of  our 

3f  age, 

rehead, 

1  black 

ivashed 

an  had 

ffraria. 

)n  was 

brows, 

ige  of 

of  his 

press- 

/vatch- 

single 

less  of 

of  the 

in  his 

1  him, 

3  take 

y  into 


LOWEST    RACES    OF   MEN".  7 

the  fire,  peering  around  with  his  Uttle  keen  eyes,  as  if 
fearing  lest  some  one  should  take  it  away  again  : — all 
this  was  done  with  such  looks  and  gestures,  that  anjone 
must  have  been  ready  to  swear  he  had  taken  the  example 
of  them  entirely  from  an  ape.  He  soon  took  the  meat 
from  the  embers,  wiped  it  hastily  with  his  right  haxid  upon 
his  left  arm,  and  tore  out  large  i.alf-raw  bits  with  his 
teeth,  which  I  could  see  going  entire  down  his  meagre 
throat." 

Under  these  circumstances  it  cannot  be  wondered  that 
we  have  most  contradictory  accounts  as  to  the  character 
and  mental  condition  of  savages.  Nevertheless,  by  com- 
jiaring  together  the  accounts  of  different  travellers,  we 
can  to  a  great  extent  avoid  these  sources  of  error ;  and 
we  are  very  much  aided  in  this  by  the  remarkable  simi- 
larity between  different  races.  So  striking  indeed  is  this, 
that  different  races  in  similar  stages  of  development  often 
j)resent  more  features  of  resemblance  to  one  another 
than  the  same  race  does  to  itself,  in  different  stages  of 
its  history. 

Some  ideas,  indeed,  which  seem  to  us  at  first  inexplicable 
and  fantastic  are  yet  very  widely  distributed.  Thus  among 
many  races  a  woman  is  absolutely  forbidden  to  speak  to 
her  son-in-law.  Franklin '^  tells  us  that  among  the 
American  Indians  of  the  far  North,  *  it  is  considered 
extremely  improper  for  a  mother-in-law  to  speak  or  even 
look  at  him  ;  and  when  she  has  a  vcommunication  to  make 
to  him,  it  is  the  etiquette  that  she  should  turn  her  back 
upon  him,  and  address  him  only  through  the  medium  of  a 
third  person.* 

Further  south  among  the  Omahaws,  *  neither  the  fiithcr- 
in-law  nor  mother-in-law  will  hold  any  direct  communica- 

'  Lichtenstein,  vol.  ii.  p.  224. 

'  Journey  to  the  Shorts  of  the  Tolar  Soa,  vol.  i.  p.  137. 


!|H 


( ;<f |5*^ 


8 


CURIOUS   CUSTOMS   WITH   EEFERENCE    '^0 


4^ 


lion  with  tlieir  son-in-law  ;  nor  will  lie,  on  any  occasion,  or 
Tinder  any  consideration,  converse  immediately  with  them, 
although  no  ill  will  e  ists  between  them ;  they  will  not,  on 
any  account,  mention  each  other's  name  in  company,  nor 
look  in  each  other's  faces ;  any  conversation  that  passes 
between  them  is  conducted  through  the  medium  of  some 
other  person.'  * 

Harmon  says  that  among  the  Indians  east  of  the  Eocky 
Mountains  the  same  rule  prevails.  Lafitau,'^  indeed,  makes 
the  same  statements  as  regards  the  North  American 
Indians  generally.  We  find  it  among  the  Crees  and 
Dacotahs  and  again  in  Florida.  Rochefort  mentions  it 
among  the  Caribs,  and  in  South  America  it  recurs  among 
the  Arawaks. 

In  Asia  among  the  Mongols  and  Calmucks  a  woman 
must  not  speak  to  her  father-in-law  nor  sit  down  in  his 
presence.  Among  the  Ostiaks  ^  of  Siberia,  *  une  fille 
mariee  evite  autant  qu'l  lui  est  possible  la  presence  du 
pere  de  son  mari,  tant  qu'elle  n'a  pas  d'enfant ;  et  le 
mari,  pendant  ce  terns,  n'ose  pas  paroltre  devant  la  mere 
de  sa  femme.  S'ils  se  rencontrent  par  hasard,  le  mari 
lui  tourne  le  dos,  et  la  femme  se  couvre  le  visage.  On 
ne  donne  point  de  nom  aux  filles  Ostiakes;  lorsqu'elles 
sent  mariees,  les  hommes  les  nomment  Imi,  femmes.  Les 
femmes,  par  respect  pour  leurs  maris,  ne  les  appellent 
pas  par  leur  nom ;  elles  se  servent  du  mot  de  Tahe, 
hommes.* 

In  China,  according  to  Duhalde,  the  father-in-law.  after 
the  wedding  day,  *  never  sees  the  face  of  his  daughter-in- 
law  again,  he  never  visits  her,'  and  if  they  chance  to  meet 


lu 


ill 


111 
111 


•  James's  Expedition  to  the  Eocky 
Mountains,  vol.  i.  p.  2  '2. 

2  Moeurs  dos  Sauvages  Araericains, 
vol.  i.  p.  676. 


'  Pallas,  vol.  iv.  pp.  71,  677.  He 
makes  the  same  statement  with  refer- 
ence to  the  Samoyedes,  loc.  cit.  p.  99. 


I 


MOTHERS-IN-LAW. 


9 


ision,  or 
li  tlicm, 
[  not,  on 
my,  nor 
t  passes 
of  some 

e  Eocky 
1,  makes 
merican 
ees  and 
itions  it 


3  among 


;  woman 

vn  in  his 

une  fiUe 

jence  du 

et  le 

la  mere 

le  marl 

Lge.     On 

squ'elles 

es.    Les 

ippellent 


J 


le  Tahe, 

iw.  after 
hter-in- 
to  meet 

,577.  He 
with  rcfur- 
cit.  p.  99. 


lie  hull's  liiniself.'  A  similar  enstom  prevails  in  Borneo 
and  in  the  Fiji  Islands.  In  Australia  Eyre  states  that  a 
man  must  not  pronounce  the  name  of  his  father-in-hiw 
his  mother-in-law,  or  his  son-in-law. 

In  Central  Africa  CaiUie'^  observes  that,  'From  this 
moment  the  lover  is  n6t  to  see  the  father  and  mother  of 
his  future  bride  :  he  takes  the  greatest  care  to  avoid 
them,  and  if  by  chance  they  perceive  him  they  cover 
their  faces,  as  if  all  ties  of  friendship  were  broken.  I 
tried  in  vain  to  discover  the  origin  of  this  whimsical  cus- 
tom ;  the  only  answer  I  could  obtain  Avas,  "  It  is  our  way." 
The  custom  extends  beyond  the  relations ;  if  the  lover 
is  of  a  different  camp,  he  avoids  all  the  inhabitants  of  the 
lady's  camp,  except  a  few  int-mate  friends  whom  he  is 
permitted  to  visit.  A  little  tent  is  generally  set  up  for 
him,  under  which  he  remains  all  day,  and  if  he  is  obliged 
to  come  out,  or  to  cross  the  camp,  he  covers  his  face.  He 
is  not  allowed  to  see  his  intended  during  the  day,  but, 
when  everybody  is  at  rest,  he  creeps  into  her  tent  and 
remains  with  her  till  daybreak.'  While  among  the  Bush- 
men in  the  far  South,  Chapman  recounts  exactly  the  same 
thing,  yet  none  of  these  observers  had  any  idea  how 
general  the  custom  is. 

Mr.  Tyler,  who  has  some  very  interesting  remarks  on 
these  customs  in  his  *  Early  History  of  Man,'  observes 
that  '  it  is  hard  even  to  guess  what  state  of  things  can 
have  brought  them  into  existence,'  nor,  so  far  as  I  am 
aware,  has  anyone  else  attempted  to  explain  them.  In 
the  Chapter  on  Marriage  I  shall,  however,  point  out  the 
manner  in  which  1  conceive  that  they  have  arisen. 

Another  curious  custom  is  that  known  in  Beam  under 

'  Astley's  Collection  of  Voyages,  vol.  iv.  p.  91. 
'''  Caillie's  Truvcls  fo  Tiiubuctoo,  vol.  i.  p.  84. 


10 


LA    COUVADE. 


■  i  ) 


the  iiaino  of  La  Couvado.  Probably  every  Eiij^'lisliiiian 
who  had  not  studied  other  races  would  assume,  as  a  mat- 
ter of  course,  that  on  the  birth  of  a  child  the  mother  would 
everywhere  be  put  to  bed  and  nursed.  But  this  is  not  the 
ease.  In  many  races  the  father,  and  not  the  mother,  is 
doctored  when  a  baby  is  born. 

Yet  thou<,'h  this  custom  seems  so  ludicrous  to  us,  it  is 
very  widely  distribut(}d.  Commencincj  with  South  America, 
Dobritzhoffer  tells  us  that  '  No  sooner  do  you  hear  that 
a  woman  has  borne  a  child,  than  you  see  the  husband 
lying  in  bed,  huddled  up  with  mats  and  skins,  lest  some 
ruder  breath  of  air  should  touch  him,  fasting",  kept  in 
private,  and  for  a  number  of  days  abstaining  religiously 
from  certain  viands  ;  you  would  swear  it  was  he  who  had 
had  the  child.  ...  I  had  read  about  this  in  old  times, 
and  laughed  at  it,  never  thiidting  I  could  believe  such 
madness,  and  I  used  to  suspect  chat  this  barbarian  custom 
was  related  more  in  jest  than  in  earnest ;  but  at  last  I 
saw  it  with  my  own  eyes  among  the  Abipones.' 

In  Brazil  among  the  Co^oados,  Martins  tells  us  that  '  As 
soon  as  the  woman  is  evidently  pregnant,  or  has  been  de- 
livered, the  man  withdraws.  A  strict  regimen  is  observed 
before  the  birth ;  the  man  and  the  woman  refrain  for  a 
time  from  the  flesh  of  certain  animals  and  live  chiefly  on 
fish  and  fruits.'  ^ 

Further  north,  in  Guiana,  Mr.  Bretf^  observes  that  some 
of  the  men  of  the  Acawoio  and  Caribi  nations,  when 
they  have  reason  to  expect  an  increase  of  their  families, 
consider  themselves  bound  to  abstain  from  certain  kinds 
of  meat,  lest  the  expected  child  should,  in  some  very 
mysterious  way,  be  injured  by  their  partaking  of  it.  The 
Acoui'l   (or  Agouti)  is  thus  tabooed,  lest,  like  that  little 


anil 
lest 
thai 


'  Spix  an<l  Martius's  Travels  in  Erazil,  vol.  ii.  p.  247. 
'  IJruLt'fci  Indian  Tribes  of  Guiana,  p.  35tj. 


LA    COUVADE. 


11 


isliinan 
a  mat- 
r  would 
not  the 
tlier,  is 

M,  it  is 
merica, 
ar  that 
lusbaiid 
st  some 
kei)t  in 
igiously 
irho  had 
d  times, 
ive  such 
I  custom 
,t  last  I 

:liat  *  As 
3een  de- 
^bserved 
in  for  a 
iefly  on 

at  some 
s,  when 
families, 
in  kinds 
[lie  very- 
it.  The 
at  little 


niilmal,  the  child  should  Le  mea<^ro;— the  Haliuara,  also, 
lest  it  should  be  bli'id — the  outer  coatiiij^'  of  the  eye  of 
that  fish  sug<^esting  film  or  cataract ;  the  Lnhha,  lest  the 
infant's  mouth  should  protrude  like  the  labba's,  or  lest  it 
be  spotted  like  the  labba,  Avhich  spots  would  ultimately 
become  ulcers.  The  Marudi  is  also  forbidden,  lost  the 
infant  be  still-born,  the  screeching  of  that  bird  being  con- 
sidered ominous  of  death.'  And  again  : — *  On  the  birth  of 
a  child,  the  ancient  Indian  etiquette  requires  the  father  to 
take  to  his  hammock,  where  he  remains  some  days  as  if  ho 
were  sick,  and  receives  the  congratulations  and  condolence 
of  his  friends.  An  instance  of  this  custom  came  under  my 
own  observation;  where  the  man,  in  robust  health  and 
excellent  condition,  without  a  single  bodily  ailment,  was 
lying  in  his  hammock  in  the  most  provoking  manner ;  and 
carefully  and  respectfully  attended  by  the  w^omen,  while 
the  mother  of  the  new-born  infant  was  cooking — none 
apparently  regarding  her !  '  ^ 

Similar  statements  have  been  ma«.v3  by  various  other 
travellers,  including  De  Tertre,  Giliz,  Biet,  Fermin,  and  in 
fact  almost  all  who  have  written  on  the  natives  of  South 
America. 

In  Greenland,  after  a  woman  is  confined,  the  *  husband 
must  forbear  working  for  some  weeks,  neither  must  they 
drive  any  trade  during  that  time ; '  2  in  Kamskatka,  for 
some  lime  before  the  birth  of  a  baby,  the  husband  must 
do  no  hard  work.  Similar  notions  occur  amonir  the 
Chinese  of  West  Yunnan,  among  the  Dyaks  of  Borneo,  in 
the  north  of  Spain,  in  Corsica,  and  in  the  south  of  France 
where  it  is  called  *  faire  la  Couvade.'  While,  however,  I 
regard  this  curious  custom  as  of  much  ethnological 
interest,  I  cannot  agree  with  Mr.  Tyler  in  regarding  it  as 
evidence  that  the  races  by  whom  it  is  practised  belong  to 


( 


'  BrPtf,  lor.  rif.  p.  101. 


*  Egpdc's  Orceiiliind,  p.  196. 


i   ■ 


f  ! 


'i! 


f! 


i 


12 


REASON    FOR    LA    COUVADE. 


one  variety  of  the  liunian  species.'  On  the  contrary,  I 
believe  that  it  originated  indej)endently,  in  several  dis- 
tinct parts  of  the  world. 

It  is  of  course  evident  that  a  custom  so  ancient,  and  so 
widely  s^^read,  must  have  its  ori<,an  in  some  idea  which 
satisfies  the  savage  mind.  Several  have  been  suggested. 
Professor  Max  Miiller,*  in  his  *  Chips  from  a  German 
Workshop,'  says  : — '  It  is  clear  that  the  poor  husband  was 
at  first  tyrannized  over  by  his  female  rel.ations,  and  after- 
wards frightened  into  superstition.  lie  then  began  to 
make  a  martyr  of  himself  till  he  made  himself  really  ill, 
or  took  to  his  bed  in  self-defence.  Strange  and  absurd  as 
the  Couvade  appears  at  first  sight,  there  is  something  in 
it  with  which,  we  believe,  most  mothers-in-law  can  sym- 
pathise.' Lafitau^  regards  it  as  arising  from  a  dim  re- 
collection of  original  sin,  rejecting  the  Carib  and  Abipon 
explanation,  which  I  have  little  doubt  is  the  correct  one, 
that  they  do  it  because  they  believe  that  if  the  father 
engaged  in  any  rough  work,  or  was  careless  in  his  diet 
'  cela  feroit  mal  a  I'enfant,  et  que  cet  enfant  participeroit 
a  tous  les  defauts  naturels  des  animaux  dont  le  pere  auroit 


mange.' 


This  idea,  namely,  that  a  person  imbibes  the  characteris- 
tics of  an  animal  which  he  eats,  is  very  widely  distributed. 
Thus  the  Malays  at  Singapore  give  a  large  price  for  the 
flesh  of  the  tiger,  not  because  they  like  it,  but  because 
they  believe  that  the  man  who  eats  tiger  '  acquires  the 
sagacity  as  well  as  the  courage  of  that  animal.'*  In 
ancient  times  those  who  wished  for  children  used  to  eat 
frogs,  because  that  animal  lays  so  many  eggs.'^ 


•  Lo''.  elf.  p.  296. 

'■'  Chips  from  a  German  Worlishop, 
vol.  ii.  p.  281. 

*  Manirs  des  Sauvages  Amcricuins, 
vol.  i.  p.  2.J9, 


*  Keppcl's    Visit    to 
Archipelago,  p.  13. 

*  Inmau's      Ancient 
Ancient  Names,  p.  383. 


the    Indian 
Faiths      in 


• 


RAVAGE    IDEAS    0?;    THE    INFLUE^'CE    OF    MIND. 


13 


iitrary,  I 
end  dis- 

t,  and  so 
ea  wliicli 
unf  (jested. 
German 
jband  was 
.lul  after- 
began   to 
really  ill, 
absurd  as 
lething  in 
can  sym- 
a  dim  re- 
ad Abipon 
•rrect  one, 
the  father 
n  his  diet 
Tticiperoit 
Dere  auroit 

laracteris- 
istributed. 
ce  for  the 
,t  because 
quires  the 
nal.'  *  In 
sed  to  eat 


*Tlie  DyaTvS  of  Borneo  have  a  prejudice  apfainst  the 
flesh  of  deer,  which  the  men  may  not  eat,  but  which 
is  allowed  to  women  and  children.  The  renson  given  for 
Ihis  is,  that  if  the  warriors  eat  the  flesh  of  deer,  they  be- 
come as  faint-heai'ted  as  that  animal.'  * 

The  Oaribs  will  not  eat  the  flesh  of  pigs  or  of  tortoises, 
lest  their  eyes  should  become  as  small  as  those  of  these 
animals.'  The  Dacotahs  eat  the  liver  of  the  dog,  in  order 
to  possess  the  sagacity  and  bravery  of  that  animal."''  The 
Arabs  also  impute  the  passionate  and  revengeful  character 
of  their  countrymen  to  the  use  of  camel's  flesh.' 

Tyler  mentions ''  that  *  an  English  merchant  in  Shang- 
hai, at  the  time  of  the  Taeping  attack,  met  his  Chinese 
servant  carrying  home  a  heart,  and  asked  him  what  he 
had  got  there.  He  said  it  was  the  lieart  of  a  rebel,  and 
that  he  was  going  to  take  it  home  and  eat  it  to  make  him 
brave.'  The  New  Zealanders,  after  baptising  an  infant, 
used  to  make  it  swallow  pebbles,  so  that  its  heart  might 
be  hard  and  incapable  of  pity.^ 

Even  cannibalism  is  sometimes  due  to  this  idea,  and  the 
New  Zealanders  eat  their  most  formidable  enemies  partly 
for  this  reason.  It  is  from  the  same  kind  of  idea  that 
*eyebright,'  because  the  flower  somewhat  resembles  an 
eye,  was  supposed  to  be  good  for  ocular  complaints. 

To  us  the  idea  seems  absurd.  Not  so  to  children.  I 
have  myself  heard  a  little  girl  say  to  her  brother,  '  If  you 
eat  so  much  goose  you  will  be  quite  silly ; '  and  there  are 
perhaps  few  children  to  whom  the  induction  would  not 
seem  perfectly  legitimate. 


the    Indian 
Faiths      in 


'  Keppel's  Expedition  to  33orneo, 
vol.  i.  p.  231. 

*  jNIiiller's  Geschichte  der  Ameri- 
anischon  Urreligionem,  p.  221. 

'  Schoolcraft' i  Indian  Tribes,  vol. 


ii.  p.  80. 

*  Astley's   Collection    of  Voyages, 
vol.  ii.  p.  143. 

*  Eiirly  History  of  Man,  p.  131. 
8  Yale's  New  Zealand,  p.  82. 


u 


CURIOUS    IDEAS    WITH 


It 


From  tlio  same  notion  tlie  Esquininnx,  *  to  render 
l)jirrcn  women  fertile  or  teeming",  take  old  pieces  of  the 
soles  of  our  shoes  to  luinj^  about  them ;  for,  as  they  take 
our  nation  to  bo  more  fertile,  and  of  a  stron^'er  disposition 
of  body  than  theirs,  they  fancy  the  virtue  of  our  body 
communicates  itself  to  our  clothinfj.' ' 

In  fact  savages  do  not  act  without  reason  any  more 
than  wo  do,  though  their  reasons  may  often  bo  bad  ones 
and  seem  to  us  singularly  absurd.  Thus  they  have  a  great 
dread  of  having  their  portraits  taken.  The  better  the 
likeness,  the  worse  they  think  for  the  sitter ;  so  much  life 
could  not  be  put  into  the  copy  except  at  the  expense  of 
the  original.  Once  when  a  good  deal  annoyed  by  some 
Indians,  Kane  got  rid  of  them  instantly  by  threatening 
to  draw  them  if  they  remained.  Catlin  tells  an  amusing, 
but  melancholy  anecdote,  in  reference  to  this  feeling.  On 
one  occasion  he  was  drawing  a  chief  named  Mahtocheega, 
in  profile.  This  when  observed  excited  much  commotion 
among  +he  Indians :  *  Why  was  half  his  face  left  out  ? '  they 
asked ;  *  Mahtocheega  was  never  ashamed  to  look  a  white 
in  the  face.'  Mahtocheega  himself  does  not  seem  to  have 
taken  any  offence,  but  Shonka,  *  the  Dog,'  took  advantage 
of  the  idea  to  taunt  him.  *  The  Englishn.an  knows,'  he 
said,  *  that  you  are  but  half  a  man ;  he  has  painted  but 
one-half  of  your  face,  and  knows  that  the  rest  is  good  for 
nothing.'  This  view  of  the  case  led  to  a  fight,  in  which 
poor  Mahtocheega  was  shot ;  and  as  ill-luck  would  have 
it,  the  bullet  by  which  he  was  killed  tore  away  just 
that  part  of  the  face  which  had  been  omitted  in  the 
drawing. 

This  was  very  unfortunate  for  Mr.  Catlin,  who  had  great 
difficulty  in  making  his  escape,  and  lived  some  months 

'  Egode's  Greenland,  p.  198, 


f 


•I 


RKFKUENCE    TO    rOIlTUAITS. 


15 


►  rciulor 
3  of  tlui 
loy  talvO 
^position 
ur  botly 

ny  more 
bad  ones 
e  a  great 
dttoY  the 
nucli  liio 
spouse  of 
by  some 
:eateiiing 
amusing, 
ing.     On 
tocheega, 
unmotion 
it  ? '  they 
a  wliite 
n  to  have 
advantage 
nows,'  ho 
inted  but 
good  for 
in  which 
luld  have 
way  just 
d   in  the 


liad  great 
months 


after  in  fear  for  his  life;  nor  was  iho  matter  sotlled  until 
bntli  Shonka  and  his  brother  had  been  killed  in  revenge 
for  the  death  of  ^rahtoelieega. 

Franklin  also  mentions  that  the  North  American  Indians 
*  prize  pictures  very  highly,  and  esteem  any  iliey  can  get, 
however  badly  executed,  as  ef'.icient  charms.'  ' 

The  natives  of  Bornou  had  a  similar  horror  of  beini,' 
'written;'  they  said  *  that  they  did  not  like  it;  that  the 
Sheik  did  not  like  it ;  that  it  was  a  sin ;  and  I  am  quite 
sure,  from  the  impression,  that  we  had  much  better  never 
have  produced  the  book  at  all.'''     In  his  Travels  in  Lap- 

:<i      land  Sir  A.  de  C.  Brooke  says  :— *  I  could  clearly  pen-eive' 

I      that  many  of  them  imagined  the  magical  art  to  bo  con- 
nected with  what  I  was  doing,  and  on  this  account  showed 

I      signs  of  uneasiness,  till  reassured  by  some  of  the  mer- 
chants.    An  instance  of  this  happened  one  morning,  when 

'       a  La])lander  knocked    at  the  door  of  my   chamber,  and 
entered  it,  as  they  usually  did,  without  further  ceremony. 
Having  come  to  Alten  to  Ilammerfest  on  some  business, 
curiosity  had  induced  him,  previously  to  his  return,  to  pay 
the  Englishman  a  visit.     After  a  dram  he  seemed  quite  at 
his  ease  ;  and   producing  my  pencil,  I  proceeded,  as  he 
stood,   to    sketch   his    portrait.     His    countenance   now 
immediately  changed,  and  taking  up  his  cap,  he  was  on 
the  point  of  making  an  abrupt  exit,  without  my  being  able 
to  conjecture  the  cause.     As  he  spoke  only  his  own  tongue, 
I  was  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  assistance  ;  when  I  found 
that  his  alarm  was  occasioned  by  my  employment,  which 
he  at  once  comprehended,  but  suspected  that,  by  obtaining 
a  likeness  of  him,  I  should  acquire  over  him  a  certain 
power  and  influence  that  might  be  prejudicial.     lie  there- 

JB         '  Voyage  to  the  Polar  Seas,  vol.  ii.       vol.  i.  p.  275. 
^     V-  6.  »  Erooke's  Lapland,  p.  354. 

^  Denham's     Travels     in     Africa, 


ill 


10 


USE   OP    PRAYERM    AS    MFDICINr!. 


^1 


Iji 


! 


foro  rt'fiiaod  to  allow  it,  and  expressed  a  wish,  befoif  any 
other  steps  were  taken,  to  n'turn  to  Alton,  and  ask  tho 
permission  of  his  master.*  Mr.  Ellis  mentions  the  exist- 
ence of  a  similar  feclinj'  in  Madnjafaspur.* 

We  can  hardly  wonder  that  wriHnj^  should  seem  to 
Ravages  even  more  maLJ^ical  than  drawing.  Carver,  for 
instance,  allowed  the  Noi-th  American  Indisms  to  open 
a  hook  as  often  as  and  wherever  they  pleased,  and  then 
told  them  the  number  of  leaves.  '  The  only  way  they 
could  account,'  he  says,  *  for  my  knowledge,  was  by  C(m- 
cluding  that  the  book  was  a  spirit,  and  whispered  mo 
answers  to  whatever  I  demanded  of  it.'  •  Further  south 
the  Minatarrees,  seeing  -Catlin  intent  over  a  cojiy  of  the 
*  New  York  Commercial  Advertiser,'  were  mucli  puzzled, 
but  at  length  came  to  the  conclusion  that  it  was  a  medi- 
cine-cloth for  sore  eyes.  One  of  them  eventually  bought 
it  for  a  liigh  price.' 

This  use  of  writing  as  a  medicine  prevails  largely  in 
Africa,  wliere  the  priests  or  wizards  write  a  prayer  on  a 
piece  of  board,  wash  it  off  and  make  the  patient  drink  it. 
Caillie,^  met  with  a  man  who  had  a  great  reputation  for 
sanctity,  and  who  made  his  living  by  writing  prayers  on  a 
board,  washing  them  off,  and  then  selli.  7  the  water,  which 
was  sprinkled  over  various  objects,  and  supposed  to  im- 
prove or  protect  them. 

Mungo  Park  on  one  occasion  profited  by  this  idea.  *  A 
Bambarran  having,'  he  says,  *  heard  that  I  was  a  Christian, 
immediately  thought  of  procuring  a  saphie ;  and  for  this 
purpose  brought  out  his  walha  or  writing-board,  assuring 
me  that  he  would  dress  me  a  supper  of  rice,  if  I  would 
write  him  a  saphie  to  protect  him  from  wicked  men.     The 

'  Tliroo  Visits  to  Madagascar,  p.  358.      '  American  Indians,  vol.  ii.  p,  92. 
2  Travels,  p.  255.  *  Travels,  vol.  i.  p.  2G2. 


n 
i>ii 


SAVAGE    inFAS   OP   DISEASK. 


17 


f(»i-('  nny 
ask  11  lu 
le  exist- 

st'om  to 
rver,  for 
to  opon 
11(1  tlicii 
rjiy  tlioy 

by  con- 
ered  mo 
er  south 
y  of  the 
puzzled, 

a  medi- 
■f  bought 

rgoly  in 
TQV  oil  a 
drink  it. 
ition  for 
ers  on  a 
r,  which 
to  iin- 

ea.     *  A 

iristian, 
for  this 
assuring 
I  would 
n.     The 

ii.  p.  92. 


]trop(>s;il  was  of  too  f^n-at  consoquonco  to  me  to  Im'  n'ruscd  : 
1  therefore  wrote  the  board  full  froui  top  tobottoin  on  both 
Hides;  ami  my  landlord,  to  bo  certain  of  hiivinrj  the  wliolo 
ft)rco  of  the  charm,  washed  the  writing'  from  the  b<»nrd 
into  a  calabash  with  a  little  water,  and  having'  said  a  few 
j)niyers  over  it,  drank  this  powei-ful  dran<^ht ;  after  which, 
lest  a  sin<,'le  word  should  esciip*',  he  licked  the  board  until 
it  was  quite  dry.'' 

In  Africa-,  the  prayers  wrilten  as  medicine  or  as  amulets 
are  generally  taken  from  the  Koran.  It  is  adinitlcd  that 
they  aro  no  protection  from  firearms,  but  this  does  not 
the  least  weaken  the  faith  in  them,  because,  as  guns  were 
not  invented  in  Mahomet's  time,  ho  naturally  provided  no 
specific  against  them.' 

Among  tho  Kirghiz  also,  Atkinson  tells  us  that  the 
Midlas  sell  similar  amulets,  *  at  the  rate  of  a  sheep  for 
each  scrap  of  paper.'* 

The  science  of  medicine  indeed,  like  that  of  astronomy, 
and  like  religion,  takes  among  savages  very  much  tlio 
(diaracter  of  witchcraft.  Ignorant  as  they  are  of  the  pro- 
cesses by  which  life  is  maintained,  of  anatomy  and  of 
physiology,  the  true  nature  of  disease  does  not  occur  to 
them.  Many  savage  races  do  not  believe  in  natural  death, 
and  if  a  man,  however  old,  dies  without  being  wounded, 
conclude  that  he  must  have  been  the  victim  of  ma^-ic. 

Thus  then,  when  a  savage  is  ill,  he  naturally  attributes 
his  sufferings  to  some  enemy  within  him,  or  to  some  forei<ni 
object,  and  the  result  is  a  peculiar  system  of  treatment 
which  is  very  curious  both  for  its  simplicity  anl  uni- 
versjility. 

*  [t  is  remarkable  in  the  Abiponian   (Paraguay)   phy- 


'  Park's  Travels,   vol.  i.  pp.    357.       vo\  ii.  p.  3o. 
Srp  iilso  p.  o6.  ^  »  Siberia,  p.  310. 

*  Asf  ley's    Collection   of  Voyages, 


Ii' 


'isS 


18 


MEDICAL    TREATMENT 


IN 


'I 

i.  if 

!    { 

i 
i 


M   i 


sicians,'  says  Fatlier  Dobritzlioffer,'  *  tliat  tliej  cure  every 
kind  of  disease  with  one  and  the  same  medicme.  Let  lis  ex- 
amine this  method  of  healing".  They  apply  their  lips  to  the 
part  affected,  and  suck  it,  spitting  after  every  suction.  At 
intervals  they  draw  up  their  breath  from  the  very  bottom 
of  their  breast  and  blow  upon  that  part  of  the  body  which 
is  in  pain.  That  blowing  and  sucking  are  alternately  re- 
peated .  .  .  This  method  of  healing  is  in  use  amongst  all 
the  savages  of  Paraguay  and  Brazil  that  I  am  acquainted 
with,  and,  according  to  Father  Jean  Grillet,  amongst  the 
Galibe  Indians.  .  .  .  The  Abij)ones,  still  more  irrational, 
expect  sucking  aiid  blowing  to  rid  the  body  of  whatever 
causes  pain  or  inconvenience.  This  belief  is  constantly 
fostered  by  the  jugglers  with  fresh  artifices.  For  when 
they  prepare  to  suck  the  sick  man,  they  secretly  put  thorns, 
beetles,  worm«^  &c.  into  their  mouths,  and  spitting  them 
out,  after  having  sucked  for  some  time,  say  to  him,  point- 
ing to  the  worm  or  thorn,  "  See  here  the  cause  of  your 
disorder."  At  this  sight  the  sick  man  revives,  when  he 
thinks  the  enemy  that  has  tormented  him  is  at  length 
erpelled.' 

At  first  one  might  almost  be  disposed  to  think  that  some 
one  had  been  amusing  himself  at  the  expense  of  the 
worthy  fatlier,  but  we  shall  find  the  very  same  mode  of 
treatment  among  other  races.  Martius  tells  us  that  the 
cures  of  the  Guaycn.rus  (Brazil)  '  are  very  simple,  and 
consist  principally  in  fumigating  or  in  sucking  the  part 
affected,  on  which  the  Paye  spits  into  a  pit,  as  if  he 
would  give  back  the  evil  principle  which  he  has  sucked 
out,  to  the  earth  and  bury  it.''*  Father  Baegert  mentions 
that  the  Californian  sorcerers  suck  and  blow  upon  those 
who  are  ill,  and  finally  show  them  some  small  object, 
which  they  assure  them  has  been  extracted,  p.nd  which 
was  the  cause  of  the  pain.     Wilkes  thus  describes  a  scene 

'  History  of  tlio  Al'iponrs,  vol.  ii.  p.  249. 
*  Travels  in  15mzil,  vol.  ii.  p.  77. 


ii^ 


AMONG    SAVAGES, 


19 


1  every 

us  ex- 

to  the 

n.     At 

bottom 

'  which 

bely  re- 

igst  all 

lainted 

erst  the 

itio.ial, 

hatever 

istantly 

)r  when 

,  thorns, 

ig  them 

I,  point- 

of  your 

hen  he 

length 


ai 


at  Wallawalhi  on  the  Coluinhia  Eivcr : — *  The  doctor,  who 
was  a  woman,  bending  over  the  body,  began  to  suck  his 
neck  and  chest  in  different  parts,  in  order  more  effectually 
to  extract  the  bad  spirit.  She  would  every  now  and  then 
seem  to  obtain  some  of  the  disease  and  then  faint  away. 
On  the  next  morning  she  was  still  found  sucking  the  boy's 
chest.  ...  So  powerful  was  the  influence  operated  on  the 
boy  that  he  indeed  seemed  better.  .  .  .  The  last  time  Mr. 
Drayton  visited  the  doctress,  she  exhibited  a  stone,  about 
the  size  of  a  goose's  efi;g,  saying  that  she  had  taken  the 
disease  of  the  boy  out  of  hini.'^ 

Among  the  Prairie  Indians  also,  all  diseases  are  treated 
alike,  being  referred  to  one  cause,  viz.  the  presence  of  an 
evil  spirit,  which  must  be  expelled.  This  the  medicine- 
man '  attempts,  in  the  first  place,  by  certain  incantations 
and  ceremonies,  intended  to  secure  the  aid  of  the  spirit  or 
spirits  he  worships,  and  then,  by  all  kinds  of  frightful 
noises  and  gestures,  and  sucking  over  the  seat  of  pain  with 
his  mouth.''*  Speaking  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Indians, 
Ilearne  says : — '  Here  it  is  necessary  to  remark,  that  they 
use  no  medicine  either  for  internal  or  external  complaints, 
but  perform  all  their  cures  by  charms.  In  ordinary  cases, 
sucking  the  part  affected,  blowing  and  singing.'* 

Again,  in  the  extreme  north,  Crantz  tells  us  that  among 
the  Esquimaux  old  women  are  accustomed  'to  extract  from 
a  swollen  leg  a  parcel  of  hair  or  scraps  of  leather  ;  they  do 
it  by  sucking  with  their  mouth,  which  they  had  before 
crammed  full  of  such  stuff.'*  Passing  now  to  the  Lap- 
landers, we  are  told  that  if  anyone  among  them  is  ill,  a 
wizard  sucks  his  forehead  and  blows  in  his  face,  thinking 
thus  to  cure  him. 


'  United  States  Exploring  Expedi- 
tion, vol.  iv.  p.  400. 

'  Schoolcraft's  Indian  Tribes,  vol.  i. 
p.  250. 


'  Voyage  to   the  NorMiern  Ocean, 
p.  189. 

*  History  of  Greenland,  7ol.i.p.214 


20 


MEDICAL   TEEATMENT   AMONG    SAVAGES. 


4 


In  Sonlli  Africa,  Clinpman  tliiis  describes  a  similar 
custom  :  a  man  having  been  injured,  lie  says,  'our  friend 
sucked  at  tlio  wound,  and  then  ,  .  ,  extracted  from  his 
mouth  a  himp  of  some  substance  which  was  supposed  to  be 
the  disease.' ' 

In  Australia,  we  are  told  by  ex-Governor  Eyre  in  his 
interesting  work,  that,  '  as  all  internal  pn  ins  are  attributed 
to  witchcraft,  sorcerers  possess  the  power  of  relieving  or 
curing  them.  Sometimes  the  mouth  is  applied  to  the  sur- 
face where  the  pain  is  seated,  the  blood  is  sucked  out,  and 
a  bunch  of  green  leaves  applied  to  the  part ;  besides  the 
blood,  which  is  derived  from  the  gums  of  the  sorcerer,  a 
bone  is  sometimes  put  out  of  the  mouth,  and  declared  to 
have  been  procured  from  the  diseased  part;  on  other 
occasions  f  he  disease  is  drawn  out  in  an  invisible  form,  and 
burnt  in  the  fire,  or  thrown  into  the  water.'  * 

Another  curious  remedy  practised  by  the  Australians  is 
to  tie  a  line  round  the  forehead  or  neck  of  the  jmtient, 
while  some  kind  friend  rubs  her  lips  with  the  other  end  of 
the  string,  until  they  bleed  freely  ;  this  blood  is  supposed 
to  come  from  the  patient,  passing  along  the  string.' 

Thus  then  we  find  all  over  the  world  this  primitive  cure 
by  sucking  out  the  evil,  which  perhaps  even  with  our- 
selves lingers  among  nurses  and  children  in  the  universal 
imrsery  remedy  of  '  Kiss  it  and  make  it  well.' 

A  dislike  of  twins  is  widely  distributed.  In  the  Island 
of  Bali'*  (near  Java),  the  natives  'have  the  singular  idea, 
when  a  woman  is  brought  to  bed  of  twins,  that  it  is  an 
unlucky  omen,  and  immediately  on  its  being  kno^vn,  the 
woman,  with  her  husband  and  children,  is  obliged  to  go 
and  live  on  the  sea-shore,  or  among  the  tombs,  for   the 


'  Travels  in  Africn.  vol.  ii.  p.  i'y. 

-  Discoveries  in  Central  Australia, 
vol.  ii.  p.  3G0.  See  ,•  Iso  Oldfield's 
Trans.  Ethn.  iii.  Soe.  N.S.  vol.  p.  213. 


'  English  Colony  in  Now  South 
Wales,  pp.  363,  382. 

*  Moor's  Notices  of  the  Imliar 
Archipelago,  p.  96, 


TANCIES    ABOUT    TWIXS. 


21 


miliir 

:riond 

[n  Ills 

to  be 

in  his 
ibuted 
.11  g  or 
le  sur- 
it,  and 
es  the 
erer,  a 
ired  to 
other 
tn,  and 

lians  is 

latient, 

end  of 

pposed 

ve  cure 
li  oiir- 
ivcrsal 

I  Ishmd 
idea, 
is  an 
I,  the 
to  go 
)r   the 

hv  South 

TntliiiP 


Solace  of  a  month  to  purify  themselves,  after  which  they 
may  return  into  the  village  upon  a  suitable  sacritiee  being 
made.  Thus  an  evidence  of  fertility  is  considered  by  them 
unfijrtunate,  and  the  poor  woman  and  her  new-born  babes 
are  exposed  to  all  the  inclemency  of  the  weather  out  of 
doors,  just  at  the  time  when  tliey  need  the  most  atten- 
iion.'  This  idea  is,  however,  far  from  being  peculiar  to 
that  island. 

Among  the  Khasias  of  Ilindostan*  '  in  the  case  of 
twins  being  born,  one  used  frequently  to  be  killed :  it  is 
considered  unlucky,  and  also  degrading,  to  have  twins,  as 
they  consider  that  it  assimilates  them  with  the  lower 
animals.' 

Among  the  Ainos  of  Japan,^  when  twins  are  born,  one  is 
always  destroyed.  At  Arebo  in  Guinea,  Smith  and  Bosnian* 
tell  us  that  when  twins  arc  born,  both  they  and  the  mother 
are  killed,  *  Tn  Nguru,  one  of  the  sister  provinces  to  Unyan- 
yembe,  twins  are  ordered  to  be  killed  and  tlirown  into  the 
water  the  moment  the}^  are  born,  lest  droughts  and  famines 
or  floods  should  oppress  the  land.  Should  anyone  attempt 
to  c    iceul  twins,  the  whole  family  would  be  murdered.'* 

The  American  Indians,*  also,  on  the  birth  of  twins  killed 
one ;  perhaps  merely  under  the  idea  that  one  strong  chikl 
wns  better  than  two  weak  ones. 

TMs  is  not  however,  I  think,  the  general  cause  of  the 
prejudice  against  twins.  I  should  rather  see  it  in  the 
curious  idea  that  one  man  would  only  have  one  child ;  so 
that  tw^ins  imply  infidelity  of  an  aggravated  character. 
Thus  in  the  introduction  to  the  curious  old  Chevalier 
Assigne,  or  Knight  of  the  Swan  : — 


'  Ptecl,  Trans.  Efhn.  Soe.  N.S.  vol. 
vii.  p.  308. 

*  Bickmorp,  Proe.  Host.  Soe.  of 
N;it.  Ilis.,  1«67. 

'  Voyage  to  Guinon,  p.  233.     Piii- 


krrton.  vol.  xv.  p.   f)2C>.     Elsowliero 
ill  (luinoa  twins  arc  welcomed. 

*  Spoke's  Discovery  of  the  Source 
of  the  Nile,  pp.  5tl,  5V2. 

*  Lafitau,  vol.  i.  p.  o92. 


y  . 


22 


LIFE    ATTRIBUTED    TO 


The  Iving  and  qaeoTi  are  sitting  on  the  wall  together : 

Tho  kynpo  lokccl  adowno,  and  livlicMo  undpr, 

And  soyj,'h  a  pore  womman,  at  the  yato  sytto, 

Wifho  two  cliyldcrca  her  byfore,  were  borno  at  a  l>yi'tho ; 

And  ho  turned  hym  thenno,  and  teres  Ictte  he  fallo. 

Pytlien  sykede  ho  on  hyghc,  and  to  the  qwene  saydi', 

Se  ye  t,he  yonder  pore  womman.     Now  that  she  is  pyncd 

"With  twynlengcs  two,  and  that  dare  I  my  heddo  wedde. 

The  qwene  nykkcd  him  with  nay,  and  scyde  it  is  not  to  levo : 

Oon  manne  fcjr  oon  chylde,  and  two  wymmon  for  twey\o  ; 

Or  ell  is  hit  were  unsemelyo  thynge,  as  me  wolde  thonke, 

But  eche  chylde  haddo  a  lader,  how  nianyc  so  thor  were.' 

Since  reading  this  I  have  found  that  the  very  same  idea 
occurs  in  Guinea.'^ 

Some  curious  ideas  prevalent  among  savages  arise  from 
the  fact  that  as  their  own  actions  are  due  to  life,  so  they 
attribute  life  even  to  inanimate  objects.  Even  Plato  as- 
sumed that  every  thing  which  moves  itself  must  have 
a  soul,  and  hence  that  the  world  must  have  a  soul. 
Hearne  tells  us  that  the  North  American  Indians  prefer 
a  hook  that  has  caught  a  big  fish  to  a  handful  that  have 
never  been  tried.  And  that  they  never  put  two  nets 
together  for  fear  they  should  be  jealous.' 

The  Bushmen  thought  Chapman's  big  waggon  was  the 
mother  of  his  smaller  ones ;  they  'despise  an  arrow  that  has 
once  failed  of  its  mark ;  and  on  the  contrary,  consider  one 
that  has  hit  as  of  double  value.  They  will,  therefore,  rather 
make  new  arrows,  how  much  time  and  trouble  soever  it 
may  cost  them,  than  collect  those  that  have  missed,  and 
use  them  again.'  "* 

The  natives  of  Tahiti  sowed  some  iron  nails  given  them 
by  Captain  Cook,  hoping  thus  to  obtain  young  ones.     They 


'  The  Eomance  of  the  Chevelere 
Assigne,  edited  by  H.  11.  Gibbs,  Erio, 
Trubuers,  18G8. 

*  Astlcy's  Colloction  of  Voyages, 
Tol.  iii.  p.  83.     At  p.  358  in  the  same 


vol.,  we  find  a  curious  variation  of 
this  idea  among  the  Hottentots, 

3  Zoe.  cit.,  p.  330. 

*  Lichtenstein's  TraA'ols  in  South 
Africa,  vol.  ii  p.  271. 


INANIMATE    On.IKCTS. 


23 


also  believe  that 'not  only  all  animals,  but  trees,  fruit,  niul 
even  stones,  liave  souls,  which  at  death  or  upon  beinj^  con- 
snnietl,  or  broken,  ascend  to  the  divinity,  with  whom  they 
lirst  mix,  and  afterwards  i>as3  into  the  mansion  allotted  to 
each.' 

The  Tongans  were  of  opinion  that  '  if  an  animal  dies,' 
jts  soul  immediately  goes  to  Bolotoo  ;  if  a  stone  or  any 
other  substance  is  broken,  immortality  is  equally  its  re- 
ward ;  nay,  artificial  bodies  have  equal  good  luck  with 
men,  and  hogs,  and  yams.  If  an  axe  or  a  chisel  is  worn 
out  or  broken  up,  a\v,.y  flies  its  soul  for  the  service  of  the 
gods.  If  a  house  is  taken  down,  or  any  way  destroyed, 
its  immortal  part  will  find  a  situation  on  the  plains  of 
Bolotoo.' 

Lichtenstein  relates  that  the  king  of  the  Coussa  Kaffirs 
having  broken  off  a  piece  of  the  anchor  of  a  stranded  ship, 
died  soon  afterwards ;  upon  which  all  the  Kaffirs  made  a 
point  of  saluting  the  anchor  very  respectfully  whenever 
they  passed  near  it,  regarding  it  as  a  vindictive  being. 

Some  similar  accident  probably  gave  rise  to  the  ancient 
Mohawk  notion  that  some  great  misfortune  would  happen 
if  anyone  spoke  on  Saratoga  Lake.  A  strong-minded 
English  woman  on  one  occasion  while  being  ferried  over 
insisted  on  talking,  and,  as  she  got  over  safely,  rallied  her 
boatman  on  his  superstition  ;  but  I  think  he  had  the  best 
of  it  after  all,  for  he  at  once  replied,  *  The  Great  Spirit  is 
merciful,  and  knows  that  a  white  woman  cannot  hold  her 
tongue.'  ^ 

The  forms  of  salutation  among  savages  are  sometimes 
very  curious,  and  their  modes  of  showing  their  feelings 
quite  unlike  ours.  Kissing  appears  to  us  to  be  the 
natural  language  of  affection.  *  It  is  certain,'  said  Steele, 
*  that  nature  was  its  author,  and  it  began  with  the  first 

'  Mariner's  Tonga  Islanrls.  vol.  ii.  p.  137. 
2  Burton's  Al.bcoknta.  vol. i.  p.  198. 


(I 
ill 


24 


SALUTATIONS. 


courtship  : '  but  tliifi  seems  to  be  quite  a  mistake ;  in  fact 
it  was  unknown  to  the  Australians,  the  New  Zealanders, 
the  Papouans,  and  the  Esquimaux ;  t!ie  West  African 
negroes,  wo  are  told,  do  not  like  it,  otherwise  I  should 
have  thought  that  when  once  discovered,  it  would  have 
been  universally  popular. 

Th(i  Polynesians  and  the  Malays  always  sit  down  when 
speaking  to  a  superior ;  a  Chinaman  puts  on  his  hat  instead 
of  taking  it  off.  Cook  asserts  that  the  people  of  MallicoUo 
show  their  admiration  by  hissing,  and  the  same  is  the  case, 
according  to  Casalis,  among  the  Kaffirs.*  In  some  of  the 
Pacific  Islands,  and  some  parts  of  Africa,  it  is  considered 
respectful  to  turn  your  back  to  a  superior.  The  Todas 
of  the  Neilgherry  Hills  are  said  to  sliow  respect  by  '  rais- 
ing the  open  right  hand  to  the  brow,  resting  the  thumb 
en  the  nose ; '  and  it  has  been  asserted  that  in  one  tribe 
of  Esquimaux  it  is  customary  to  pull  a  person's  nose  as 
a  compliment,  though  it  is  but  4ght  to  say  that  Dr.  Eae 
thinks  there  was  some  mistake  on  the  point ;  on  the  other 
hand,  Dr.  Blackmore  mentions  that '  the  sign  of  the  Arapa- 
lioes,  and  from  which  they  derive  their  name,'  consists  in 
seizing  the  nose  with  the  thumb  and  forefinger.^ 

It  is  asserted  that  in  China,  a  coffin  is  regarded  as  an 
appropriate  present  for  an  aged  relative,  especially  if  he 
1)0  in  bad  health. 


'  Tho  Ilasiitos ;  by  the  Tfev.  E.  Casalis,  d.  234. 
'  Trans.  Ethu.  Soc,  1869,  p.  310. 


\iQ ;  in  fact 
Zealaiiders, 
est  African 
30  I  should 
would  liave 

down  when 
hat  instead 
)f  MallicoUo 
I  is  the  case, 
some  of  the 
3  considered 

The  Todas 
ct  by  *  rais- 

the  thumb 
in  one  tribe 
on's  nose  as 
bat  Dr.  Rae 
on  the  other 
if  the  Araj)a- 
/  consists  in 
}r.^ 

yarded  as  an 
)ecially  if  he 


\i. 


ill 


^ 


^. 


y. 


■% 


CHAPTER  II. 


ART    AND    ORNAMENTS. 


O 


/. 


rpIIE  earliest  traces  of  art  yet  disco vorecl  belon<^  to 
-1-  the  Stone  Age, — to  a  time  so  early  that  the  Rciii- 
ileer  was  abundant  in  the  south  of  France,  and  that 
probably,  though  on  this  point  there  is  some  doubt, 
even  iho  mammoth  had  not  entirely  disappeared.  Tlii^se 
works  of  art  are  sometimes  sculptures,  if  one  may  say  so, 
and  sometimes  drawings  or  etchings  made  on  bone  or 
horn  with  the  point  of  a  flint. 

They  are  of  peculiar  interest,  both  as  being  the  earliest 
works  of  art  known  to  us, — older  than  any  Egyptian 
statues,  or  any  of  the  Assyrian  monuments,  and  also 
because,  though  so  ancient,  they  show  really  considerable 
skill.  There  is,  for  instance,  a  certain  spirit  about  the 
subjoined  group  of  reindeer  (fig.  1),  copied  from  a  specimen 
in  the  collection  of  the  Marquis  de  Vibraye.  The  mam- 
moth (PI.  I.)  represented  on  the  opposite  page,  though  less 
artistic,  is  perhaps  even  more  interesting.  It  is  scratched 
on  a  piece  of  mammoth's  tusk,  and  was  found  in  the  cave 
of  La  Madelaine  in  the  Dordogne. 

It  is  somewhat  remarkable  that  while  even  in  the  Stone 
Period  we  find  very  fair  drawings  of  aiiimcus,  yet  in  the 
latest  part  of  the  Stone  Age,  and  throughout  that  of 
Bronze,  they  are  almost  entirely  wanting,  and  the  ornamen- 


1^ 


1 1 

I  i 


1 


20 


ATIT   AS    AN 


I,        I 


!| 


till  ion  is  conliiicMl  to  various  conibiniitioiis  of  s(riiiL,'lit  aiul 
cui'vcmI  liiR'S  and.  yoometrical  2)atterns.  This,  1  believt', 
■will  eventually  bo  found  to  imply  a  diff'cn^nco  of  race 
butwut'U   the   j)<^rul^^ti<^i^    <^f    Western    Europe    at   these 


FlQ.  1. 


GROUP  OF  BEINDEETU 


different  periods.  Thus  at  present  the  Esquimaux  (see 
fij^s.  2-4)  are  very  fair  draughtsmen,  v^^liile  the  Poly- 
nesians, though  much  more  advanced  in  many  ways,  and 
though  very  skilful  in  ornamenting  both  themselves  and 
their  wea^Dons,  have  very  little  idea  indeed  of  representing 
animals  or  plants.  Their  tattooings,  for  instance,  and 
the  patterns  on  their  weapons,  are,  like  the  ornaments 
of  the  Bronze  Age,  almost  invariably  of  a  geometrical 
character.  Representations  of  animals  and  plants  are  not, 
indeed,  entirely  wanting ;  but,  whether  attempted  in  draw- 
ing or  in  sculpture,  they  are  always  rude  and  grotesque. 
With  the  Esquimaux  the  very  reverse  is  the  case ;  among 
them  we  find  none  of  those  graceful  spirals,  and  other 
geometrical  patterns,  so  characteristic  of  Polynesia ;  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  their  weapons  are  often  covered  with 


iijlit  iiiul 
bt'liovc, 

(»f    I'ilCO 

at   these 


anx  (see 
e  Poly- 
,'ays,  and 
I'lves  and 
esenting 
ce,  and 
naments 
metrical 
are  not, 
Hn  draw- 
■otesqne. 
among- 
id  other 
[ia;  but, 
:ed  with 


ETIINO',()(iI('AIi   cnAiiACTi;!;. 


07 


^ 


o 
a, 


o 
to 

3 

H 

i4 


\ 


28 


aut  as  an 


roprosoiitiitions  df  aiiiiiiiils  and  limit in^'  srcnos.  Tliua 
litM'clioy,'  (U'scribingf  the  weapons  of  thu  Ksquiinaux  at 
Jlotham's  Inlet,  says: — 

'  On  the  outside  of  this  and  otlior  instrunionts  tlioro  wore 
etched  a  variety  of  fij^nires  of  men,  beasts,  birds,  &c.,  with 
a  truth  and  character  which  showed  the  art  to  be  connnon 
ainon;^  them.  The  reindeer  were  generally  in  herds ;  in 
one  picture  they  were  pursued  by  a  man  in  a  stoopinj^ 
posture,  in  snow-shoes  ;  in  another  ho  had  approached 
nearer  to  his  game,  and  was  in  the  act  of  drawing  his 
bow.  A  third  represented  the  manner  of  taking  seals 
with  an  inflated  skin  of  the  same  animal  as  a  decoy ;  it 
was  placed  iipon  the  ice,  and  not  far  from  it  was  a  man 
lying  upon  his  belly,  with  a  harpoon  ready  to  strike  the 
animal  when  it  should  make  its  appearance.  Another  was 
dragging  a  seal  home  upon  a  small  sledge  ;  and  several 
baidars  wore  employed  har^^ooning  whales  which  had  been 
previously  shot  with  arrows ;  and  thus,  by  comparing  one 
with  another,  a  little  history  was  obtained  which  gave  us 
a  better  insight  into  their  habits  than  could  be  elicited 
from  any  signs  or  intimations.'  Some  of  these  drawings 
are  represented  in  figs.  2-4,  which  are  taken  from  speci- 
mens presented  by  Captain  Beeehey  to  the  Ashmolean 
Museum  at  Oxford. 

Hooper '  also  mentions  drawings  among  the  Tuski,  espe- 
cially *  a  sealskin  tanned  and  bleached  perfectly  white, 
ornamented  all  over  in  painting  and  staining  with  figures 
of  men,  boats,  animals,  and  delineations  of  whale-fishing, 
&c. — a  valuable  curiosity.* 

In  the  same  way  we  may,  I  thinlv,  fairly  hope  eventually 
to  obtain  from  the  ancient  drawings  of  the  bone  caves  a 
better  insight   into    the   habits   of  our  ^predecessors   in 

'  N.'irrative  of  a  Voyape  to  the  racific,  vol.  i.  p.  251. 
^  Tents  of  the  Tuski,  p.  Co. 


i 


\ 


KTlINOLOiJ ICAL   CU AKACTKR, 


Ml' 


.     Thus 
miux  at 

ero  wore 
ic.f  with 
coiiiinon 
prds ;  in 
Btoopin<:f 
)roached 
liifi 


*vin|^ 


,ecoy ;  it 

IS  a  mail 

trike  the 

jthur  was 

il  several 

had  been 

ring  one 

gave  us 

elicited 

Irawii.gs 

n  speci- 

imolean 


a,  espe- 
Y  white, 
figures 
■fishing, 

ntually 
caves  a 
sors   in 


Western  llurope;  to  ascertain,  for  instamt',  whothcr  tht'ir 
reindeer  were  doinestieated  or  uiKl.  As  yet,  howevi'r, 
mere  representations  of  animals  have  be(*n  met  with,  and 
nothing  lias  hcen  found  to  8Ui>[)lenient  in  any  way  the 
evidence  derivable  from  the  implements,  i^c. 

But  though  we  thus  find  art — simple,  indeed,  but  by 
no  means  contemptible — in  very  ancient  times,  and  among 
very  savage  tribes,  there  are  also  other  races  who  are 
singularly  deficient  in  it. 

Thus,  though  some  Australians  are  capable  of  making 
rude  drawings  of  animals,  i\:e.,  others  on  the  contrary,  as 
Oldtield  '  tells  us,  '  seem  qiute  unable  to  realise  the  most 
vivid  artistic  representations.  On  being  shown  a  large 
coloured  engraving  of  an  aboriginal  New  Ilollandi'r, 
one  declared  it  to  be  o  ship,  another  a  kangaroo,  and 
so  on  ;  not  one  of  a  dozen  identifying  the  portrait  as 
having  any  connection  with  himself.  A  rude  drawing, 
with  all  the  lesser  parts  much  exaggerated,  they  can 
realise.  Thus,  to  give  them  an  idea  of  a  man,  the  head 
must  be  drawn  disproportionately  large.' 

Dr.  CoUingwood,'^  speaking  of  the  Kibalans  of  Formosa, 
to  whom  he  showed  a  copy  of  the  *  Illustrated  London 
News,'  tells  us  that  he  found  it  *  impossible  to  interest 
them  by  pointing  out  the  most  striking  illustrations,  which 
they  did  not  appear  to  comprehend.' 

Denham,  in  his  '  Travels  in  Central  Africa,'  says  that 
Bookhaloom,  a  man  otherwise  of  considerable  intelliu:ence, 
though  he  readily  recognised  figures,  could  not  under- 
stand a  landscape.  *I  could  not,'  he  says,  'make  him 
understand  the  intention  of  the  print  of  the  sand  whid 
in  the  desert,  which  is  really  so  well  described  by  Captain 
Lyon's  drawing ;  he  would  look  at  it  upside-down ;  and 


'  Trans.  Etlin.  f^oc.  N.S.  vol.  iii.  p.  227. 

2  Jbk/.  vol.  vi.p.  i;;u. 


I 


! 


iHi 


I 

- 

! 

1 

I 

1 

'     I 

!     I 

i        ■ 

30 


ART   IN    AFRICA. 


when  I  twice  reversed  it  for  him,  he  exchiiiued,  "  Why ! 
why !  it  is  all  the  same."  A  camel  or  a  human  figure 
was  all  I  could  make  him  understand,  and  at  these  he 
was  all  agitation  and  delight — "  Gieb  !  gieb  I  Wonder- 
ful !  wonderful !  *'  The  eyes  first  took  his  attention,  then 
the  other  features  ;  at  the  sight  of  the  sword  he  exclaimed, 
'*  Allah  !  Allah  !  "  and,  on  discovering  tlie  guns,  instantly 
exclaimed,  "  Where  is  the  powder  ?  "  '  > 

So  also  the  Kaffir  has  great  difficulty  in  understanding 
drawings,  and  perspective  is  altogether  beyond  him. 
Central  and  Southern  Africa  seems,  indeed,  to  be  very 
backward  in  matters  of  art.  Still  the  negroes  are  not 
altogether  deficient  in  the  idea.  Their  idols  cannot  be 
called  indeed  works  of  art,  but  they  often  not  only  re- 
present men,  but  give  some  of  the  Afric  .n  characteristics 
with  grotesque  fidelity. 

The  Kaffirs  also  can  carve  fair  representations  of 
animals  and  plants,  and  are  fond  of  doing  so.  The  handles 
of  their  spoons  are  often  shaped  into  unmistakeable  like- 
nesses of  giraffes,  ostriches,  and  other  animals. 

As  to  the  Bushmen,  we  have  rather  difierent  accounts. 
It  has  been  stated  by  some  that  they  have  no  idea  of  per- 
spective nor  how  a  curved  surface  can  possibly  be  repre- 
sented on  a  flat  piece  of  paper ;  while,  on  the  contrary, 
otlier  travellers  assert  that  they  readily  recognise  drawings 
of  animals  or  flowers.  The  Chinese,  although  so  advanced 
in  many  ways,  are,  we  know,  very  deficient  in  the  idea  of 
perspective. 

Probably,  no  race  of  men  in  the  Stone  Age  had  at- 
tained the  art  of  communicatirig  facts  by  means  of  letters, 
nor  even  by  the  far  ruder  system  of  picture-writing ;  nor 
does  anything,  perliaps,  surprise  the  savage  more  than  to 

'  Di'iiliiun,  Travi'lb  in  Africa,  vol.  i.  p.  167. 


M 


THE    QUIPPU. 


'1 1 
Ol 


find  tliiit  Europeans  can  comiuiiiiicato  with  one  another  bv 
means  of  a  few  black  scratches  on  a  piece  of  paper. 

Even  the  Peruvians  had  no  better  means  of  recording* 
events  than  the  Quippu  or  Quipu,  which  was  a  cord  about 
two  feet  long,  to  which  a  number  of  different  coloured 
threads  were  attached  in  the  form  of  a  fringe.  These 
threads  were  tied  into  knots,  whence  the  name  Quippu 
meaning  a  knot.  These  knots  served  as  cyphers,  and 
ihe  various  threads  had  ah'o  conventional  meanings  at- 
tached to  them  and  indicated  by  the  various  colours. 
This  singular  and  apparently  very  cumbersome  mode  of 
assisting  the  memory  reappears  in  China  and  in  Africa. 
Thus,  *  As  to  '  the  original  of  the  Chinese  characters, 
before  the  commencement  of  the  monarcin'  little  cords 
with  sliding  knots,  each  of  which  had  its  particular 
signification,  were  used  in  transacting  business.  These 
are  represented  in  two  tables  by  the  Chinese,  called  Ilo-tu, 
and  Lo-shu.  The  first  colonies  who  inhabited  Se-chweii 
had  no  other  literature  besides  some  arithmetical  sets 
of  counters  made  with  little  knotted  cords,  in  imitation 
of  a  string  of  round  beads ;  with  which  they  calculated 
and  made  up  all  their  accounts  in  commerce.'  Again, 
in  West  A  friea,  we  are  told  that  the  i)eople  of  Ardrah  ^ 
*  can  neither  write  nor  read.  They  use  small  cords  tied, 
the  knots  of  which  have  their  signification.  These  are 
also  used  by  several  savage  nations  in  America.'  It 
seems  not  impossible  that  tying  a  knot  in  a  loktt- 
handkerchief  may  be  the  direct  lineal  representative  of 
this  ancient  and  widely  extended  mode  of  assisting  the 
memory. 

The  so-called  picture-writing  is,  however,  a  great  ad- 
vance. Yet  from  representations  of  hunts  in  general  such  as 
those  of  the  Esquimaux  (see  figs.  2--i),  it  is  indeed  but  a 

'  AstltVs  Collection  of  Vojii(i;(S,  vol.  iv.  p.  19t. 
*  lOid.  vol.  iii.  p.  71. 


*M 


fill 


i 


' 'I 


■Ifi  ; 


IJ ' 


32 


PICTURE-WRITIXG. 


step  to  record  pictorially  some  particular  hunt.  j'Vgain,  the 
Esquimaux  almost  always  places  his  mark  on  his  arrows, 
but  I  am  not  aware  that  any  Polynesian  ever  conceived  the 
idea  of  doing  so.  Thus  we  get  among  the  Esquimaux  a 
double  commencement,  as  it  were,  for  the  representation 
of  ideas  by  means  of  signs. 

This  art  of  pictorial  writing  was  still  more  advanced 
among  the  Red  Skins. 

Thus  Carver  tells  us  that  on  one  occasion  his  Chipeway 
guide  fearing  that  the  Naudowessies,  a  hostile  tribe,  might 
accidentally  fall  in  with  ..^u  attack  them,  *  peeled  the  bark 
from  a  large  tree  near  the  entrance  of  a  river,  and  with 
wood-coal  mixed  with  bear's  grease,  their  usual  substitute 
for  ink,  made  in  an  uncouth  but  expressive  manner  the 
figure  of  the  town  of  the  Ottagaumies.  He  then  formed 
to  the  left  a  man  dressed  in  skins,  by  which  he  intended 
to  represent  a  Naudowessie  with  a  line  drawn  from  his 
mouth  to  that  of  a  deer,  the  symbol  of  the  Chipeways. 
After  this  he  depicted  still  farther  to  the  left  a  canoe  as 
proceeding  up  the  river,  in  which  he  placed  a  man  sitting 
with  a  hat  on ;  this  figure  was  designed  to  represent  an 
Englishman,  or  myself,  and  my  Frenchman  war?  drawn 
with  a  handkerchief  tied  round  his  head,  and  rowing  the 
canoe ;  to  these  he  added  several  other  significant  em- 
blems, among  which  the  pipe  of  peace  appeared  painted 
on  the  prow  of  the  canoe.  The  meaning  he  intended  to 
convey  to  the  Naudowessies,  and  which  I  doubt  not  ap- 
peared perfectly  intelligible  to  them,  was  that  one  of  the 
Chipeway  chiefs  had  received  a  speech  from  some  Naudo- 
wessie  chiefs  at  the  town  of  the  Ottagaumies,  desiring  him 
to  conduct  the  Englishman,  who  had  lately  been  among 
them,  up  the  Chipeway  river ;  and  that  they  tliei  eby  re- 
quired, that  the  Chipeway,  notwithstanding  he  was  an 
avowed  enemy,  should  not  be  molested  by  them  on  his 


INDIAN    CENSUS-ROLL. 


33 


1 


III 


13 


I! 


ly 


mil 


:il 


4;J 


111 


Fifj,  5, 


14 


20 


11 


32 


1    M    I   I 


mil 


111 


15 


nil 


•27 


C) 


•Mi 


II 


10 


II  Ml 


III 


•-'8 


3-1 


mm 


11 


in 


12 


nil 


23 


-'  V  ^»' 


II 


20 


111 


18 


I  I  I 


21 


II 


•M 


!   I 


m 


INDIAN    CKNSVS-UOLL. 


!( a 


II: 


it 


3 


34 


INDIAN   CENSUS-EOLL. 


t 

I 


paiisage,  as  lie  had  t?  care  of  a  person  v>rliom  they  esteemed 
as  one  of  their  natioxi.'  ^ 

An  excellent  account  of  the  Red  Skin  pictorial  art 
is  given  by  Schoolcraft  in  his  *  History  of  the  Indian 
Tribes  in  the  United  States.' 

Fig.  5  represents  the  census-roll  of  an  Indian  band 
at  Mille  Lac,  in  the  teri'itory  of  Minnesota,  sent  in  to  the 
United  States  agent  by  Nago-nabe,  a  Chippewa  Indian, 
during  the  progress  of  the  annuity  payments  in  1849. 
The  Indians  generally  denote  themselves  by  their  *  totem  ' 
or  family  sign,  but  in  this  case,  as  they  all  had 'the  same 
totem,  he  had  designated  each  family  by  a  sign  denoting 
the  common  name  of  the  Chief.  Thus  No.  5  denotes 
a  Catfish,  and  the  six  strokes  indicate  that  the  Catfish's 
family  consisted  of  six  individuals ;  8  is  a  beaver  skin,  9  a 
sun,  13  an  eagle,  14  a  snake,  22  a  bnffalo,  34,  an  axe, 
35  the  priest,  and  so  on. 

Fig.  6  is  the  record  of  a  noted  chief  of  the  St.  Mary's 
band,  called  Shin-ga-ba-was-sin,  or  the  Image-stone,  who 
died  on  Lake  Superior  in  1828.  He  was  of  the  totem  of  the 
crane,  as  indicated  by  the  figure.  The  six  strokes  on  the 
right,  and  the  three  on  the  left,  are  marks  of  honour.  The 
latter  represent  three  important  general  treaties  of  peace 
in  which  he  had  taken  part  at  various  times.'  Among  the 
former  marks  are  included  his  presence  under  Tecumseh, 
at  the  battle  of  Moraviantown,  where  he  lost  a  brother. 

Fig.  7  represents  the  adjedatig  or  tomb-board  of  Wabo- 
jeeg,  a  celebrated  war-chief,  who  died  on  Lake  Superior, 
about  1793.  He  was  of  the  family  or  clan  of  the  reindeer. 
This  fact  is  symbolized  by  the  figure  of  the  deer.  The 
reverse  position  denotes  death.  His  own  personal  name, 
which    was    the   White   Fisher,   is    not    noticed.      The 


«  Carver's  Travels,  p.  413. 


'  Schoolcraft,  ludian  Tribes,  vol.  i.  p.  357. 


se 
w 
to 


fi 


wii 
fro 
Fa] 
the 
the 
cen 
the 
syn 
woi 
sen 
Chi 
ord 


teemed 

ial  art 
Indian 

Q  band 
to  the 
Indian, 
1  1849. 
totem  ' 
le  same 
enoting 
denotes 
!atfish's 
kin,  9  a 
an  axe, 

Mary's 

le,  wlio 

a  of  the 

1  on  the 

r.    The 

f  peace 

Dng  the 

umseh, 

her. 

Wabo- 

iperior, 

indeer. 

The 

name. 

The 

i.  p.  357. 


INDIAN    TOMBSTONES. 


35 


seven  marks  on  the  left  denote  that  he  had  led  seven 
war  parties.  The  three  perpendicular  lines  below  the 
totem  represent  three  wounds  received  in  battle.  The 
figure  of  a  moose's  head  relates  to  a  desperate  conflict 


Fio.  6. 


Fio.  7. 


fn^^it^' 


^.'^S 


INDIAN   GHAVB   POSTS. 


(Schoolcraft,  vol.  i.  pi.  50.) 


with  an  enraged  animal  of  this  kind.  Fig.  8  is  copied 
from  a  bark  letter  which  was  found  above  St.  Anthony's 
Falls,  in  1820.  'It  consisted  of  white  birch  bark,  and 
the  figures  had  been  carefully  drawn.  No.  1  denotes 
the  flag  of  the  Union :  No.  2  the  cantonment,  then  re- 
cently established  at  Cold  Spring,  on  the  western  side  of 
the  cliffs,  above  the  influx  of  the  St.  Peters  :  No.  4  is  the 
symbol  of  the  commanding  ofl&cer  (Colonel  H.  Leaven- 
worth), under  whose  authority  a  mission  of  peace  had  been 
sent  into  the  Chippewa  country:  No.  11  is  the  symbol  of 
Chakope,  or  the  Six,  the  leading  Sioux  chior,  binder  whose 
orders  the  party  moved :  No.  8  is  the  second  chief,  called 


\l 


iii 


36 


PICTUllE-WIlITIJfG. 


' 


t   -111 


Wabedatunkii,  or   ilie   Black   Pog.     The   symbol   of  his 

name  is  No.  10;  he  has  fourteen  lodges.     No.  7  is  a  chief, 

Pjq  g  subordinate  to  Chakope, 

with  thirteen  lodges, 
Diid  a  bale  of  goods 
(No.  9)  which  was  de- 
voted, by  the  govern- 
ment, to  the  objects  of 
the  peace.  The  name 
of  No.  G,  whose  wigwam 
is  No.  5,  with  thirteen 
subordinate  lodges,  was 
not  given.'  ^ 

This  was  intended  to 


I    imply  that  a  party    of 
Siou^:  headed  by  Clia- 
><!5^]rf   «    kope  and  accompanied, 
^^^^^^    ^    or  at  least  countenanced 
g    by      Colonel      Leaven- 
worth, had  come  to  this 
spot    in    the   hope    of 
meeting  the  Chippewa 
hunters  and  concluding 
a  peace.    The  Chippewa 
chief    Babesacundabee, 
who  found  this   letter, 
read    off   its    meaning 
without  doubt  or  hesi- 
tation. 

On  one  occasion  a 
party  of  explorers  with 
two  Indian  guides,  saw  one  morning,  just  as  they  were 
about  to  start,  a  pole  stuck  in  the  direction  they  were 

•  Schoolcraft'g  Indian  Tribes,  vol.  i.  pp.  352,  353. 


i 


PICTURE-WRITING, 


O  t 


of  Ilia 
,  chief, 
akope, 
lodges, 

goods 
as  <ie- 
^overn- 
ects  of 

name 
igwam 
birte^n 


es,  was 


ided  to 

irty    of 

y  Clia- 

panied, 

nanced 

eaven- 

:o  this 

Dpe    of 

ippewa 

luding 

ippewa 

da  bee, 

letter, 

eaning 

V  hesi- 

Uon  a 
's  with 
f  were 
f  were 


going,  and  holding  at  the  top  a  piece  of  bark,  covered 
with  drawings,  which  were  intended  for  the  information 
of  any  other  Indians  who  might  pass  that  way.  This  is 
represented  in  lig.  9. 

No.  1  represents  the  subaltern  officer  in  command  of 
the  party.  He  is  drawn  with  a  sword  to  denote  his  rank. 
No.  2  denotes  the  secretary.  He  is  represented  as  hold- 
ing a  book,  the  Indians  having  understood  him  to  be  an 
attorney.  No.  3  represents  the  geologist,  appropriately  in- 
dicated by  a  hammer.  Nos.  4  and  5  are  attaches ;  No.  6 
the  interpreter.     The  group  of  figures  marked  9  repre- 

Fio.  9. 


IKUIAN   BARK   t-ETTKR. 


Bents  seven  infantry  soldiers,  each  of  whom,  as  shown  in 
group  No.  10,  was  armed  with  a  musket.  No.  15  denotes 
that  they  had  a  separate  fire,  and  constituted  a  separate 
mess.  Figs.  7  and  8  represent  the  two  Chippewa  guides. 
These  are  the  only  human  figures  drawn  without  the 
distinguishing  symbol  of  a  hat.  This  was  the  character- 
istic seized  on  by  them,  and  generally  employed  by  the 
Indians,  to  distinguish  the  Red  from  the  White  race.  Figs. 
11  and  12  rejnesent  a  prairie  hen  and  a  green  tortoise, 
which  constituted  the  sum  of  the  preceding  day's  chase, 
and  were  eaten  at  the  encampment.  The  inclination  of  the 
pole  was  designed  to  show  the  course  pursued ;  and  there 
were  three  hacks  in  it  below  the  scroll  of  bark,  to  indicate 
the  estimated  length  of  this  part  of  the  journey,  com- 


im 


!» 


m 


11 


^il 


1)     f 


Irn 


I 


38 


INDIAN    BIOGRAPHY. 


pntiiig  from  water  to  water.  The  following  fifjurc  (fig.  10) 
gives  the  l)l()gra[)hy  of  Wingcmund,  a  noted  chief  of 
the  Delawares.  1  shows  that  it  belonged  to  the  oldest 
branch  of  the  tribe,  which  use  the  tortoise  on  their 
symbol.  2  is  his  totem  or  symbol ;  3  is  the  sun,  and 
the  ten  strokes  represent  ten  war  parties  in  which  he 
WHS  engaged.  Those  figures  on  the  left  represent  the 
captives  which  he  made  in  each  of  his  excursions,  the 

Via.  10. 


INDIAN   BARK    LETTER. 


men  being  distinguished  from  the  women,  and  the  cap- 
tives being  denoted  by  having  heads,  whUe  a  man  with- 
out his  head  is  of  course  a  dead  man.  The  central 
figures  represent  three  forts  which  he  attacked;  8  one 
on  lake  Erie,  9  that  of  Detroit,  and  10  Fort  Pitt  at  the 
junction  of  the  Alleghany  and  the  Monongahela.  The 
sloping  strokes  denote  the  number  of  his  followers.* 

Fig.  11  represents  a  petition  presented  to  the  President 
of  the  United  States  for  the  right  to  certain  Lakes  (8)  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Lake  Superior  (10). 

No  1  represents  Oshcabawis  the  leader,  who  is  of  the 


'  Schoolcraft,  vol.  i.  p.  353. 


INDIAN   PETITION. 


39 


Ml 


40 


ROCK   SCULPTURES. 


I'    I    i 


I      i 


«  !l 


I'      ti 


I 


i  1 


Crano  clan.  Ilic  cjes  of  his  followers  are  all  connected 
with  liis  to  symbolise  unity  of  views,  and  their  hearts  to 
denote  unity  of  feeling.  No  2  is  Wai-mit-tig-oazh,  whoso 
totem  is  a  Marten  :  No  3  is  Ggcn^agoezhig,  also  a  Marten  ; 
4  is  another  Marten,  Muk-o-mis-ud-ains,  the  little  Tor- 
toise :  5  is  0-mush-kose,  the  little  Elk,  belonging  how- 
ever to  the  Bear  totem :  C  belongs  to  the  Manfish  totem  ; 
and  7  to  the  Catfish.  The  eye  of  the  leader  has  a  line 
directed  forwards  to  the  President,  and  another  backwards 
to  the  Lakes  (8). 

In  some  places  of  Western  Europe,  rock  sculptures 
have  been  discovered,  to  which  we  cannot  yet  safely  ascribe 
any  meaning,  but  on  which  perhaps  the  more  complete 
study  of  the  picture-writing  of  modern  savages  may  event- 
ually throw  some  light. 

We  will  now  pass  to  art  as  applied  to  the  purposes  of 
personal  decoration.  Savages  are  passionately  fond  of 
ornaments.  In  some  of  the  very  lowest  races,  indeed,  the 
women  are  almost  undecorated,  but  that  is  only  because 
the  men  keep  all  the  ornaments  themselves.  As  a  general 
rule  we  may  say  that  Southerners  ornament  them.selves, 
North  err  )rs  their  cloJies.  In  fact  all  savage  races  who 
leave  much  of  their  skin  uncovered,  delight  in  painting 
themselves  in  the  most  brilliant  colours  they  can  obtain. 
Black,  white,  red,  and  yellow  are  the  favourite,  or, 
rather,  perhaps,  the  commonest  colours.  Although  per- 
fectly naked,  the  Australians  of  Botany  Bay  were  by  no 
means  without  ornaments.  They  painted  themselves  with 
red  ochre,  white  clay,  and  charcoal ;  the  red  was  laid  on 
in  broad  patches,  the  white  generally  in  stripes,  or  on  the 
face  in  spots,  often  with  a  circle  round  each  eye ;  ^  through 
the  septum  of  the  nose  they  wore  a  bone,  as  thick  as  a 
man's  finger  and  five  or  six  inches  long.     This  was  of 

'  Ilawkosworth's  Voyages,  vol.  iii.  p.  635. 


SAVAGE    ORNAMENTS. 


41 


a 
of 


course  very  awkward,  as  it  prevoiitcd  tliom  froiu  l)n'allnng 
freely  tliroiigli  the  nose,  but  they  subniitteO  cheerfully  to 
the  inconvenience  for  the  sake  of  appearance. 

Tliey  had  also  necklaces  made  of  shells,  neatly  cut  and 
strung  together;  earrings,  bracelets  of  small  cord;  and 
strings  of  plaited  human  hair,  which  they  wound  round 
their  waists.  Some  also  had  gorgets  of  large  sl.jlls 
hanging  from  the  neck  across  the  breast.  On  all  these 
things  they  placed  a  high  value. 

Spix  and  Martius '  thus  describe  the  ornaments  of  a 
Coroado  woman.  *  On  the  cheek  she  had  a  circle,  and 
over  that  two  strokes ;  under  the  nose  several  marks 
resembling  an  M ;  from  the  corners  of  the  mouth  to  the 
middle  of  the  cheek  were  two  parallel  lines,  and  below 
them  on  both  sides  many  straight  stripes ;  below  and 
between  her  breasts  there  were  some  connected  segments 
of  circles,  and  down  her  arms  the  figure  of  a  snake  was 
depicted.  This  beauty  wore  no  ornaments,  except  a  neck- 
lace of  monkeys'  teeth.' 

The  savage  also  wears  necklaces  and  rings,  bracelets 
and  anklets,  armlets  and  leglets — even,  if  I  may  say  so, 
bodylets.  Round  their  bodies,  round  their  necks,  round 
their  arms  and  legs,  their  fingers,  and  even  their  toes, 
they  wear  ornaments  of  all  kinds.  From  their  number 
and  weight  these  must  sometimes  be  very  inconvenient. 
Lichtenstein  saw  the  wife  of  a  Beetuan  chief  wearing  no 
less  than  seventy-two  brass  rings. 

Nor  are  they  particular  as  to  the  material:  copper, 
brass,  or  iron,  leather,  or  ivory,  stones,  shells,  glass,  bits 
of  wood,  seeds,  or  teeth — nothing  comes  amiss.  In  South 
East  Island,  one  of  the  Louisiade  Archipelago,  M*Gillivray 
even  saw  several  bracelets  made  each  of  a  lower  human 
jaw,  crossed  by  a  collar-bone :  and  other  travellers  have 

'  Travels  in  Brazil,  vol.  ii.  p.  224. 


il 


!i 


ir 


42 


CHEEK   STUDS.      LABIIETS. 


soon  l>rjiss  curtain  rin<^'a,  11*0  brass  i)latc.s  for  kc^holos,  ilio 
lids  of  sardine  cases,  and  other  such  inconj^'ruous  objects, 
worn  with  much  jj^ravity  and  pride. 

The  Fehitah  ladies  in  Central  Africa  spend  several  hours 
a  day  over  their  toilet.  In  fact  they  bej^in  over-ni<^ht  by 
:;arefully  wrapping  their  fingers  and  toes  in  henna  leaves, 
so  that  by  morning  they  arc  a  beautiful  purple.  Tlie  teeth 
are  stained  alternately  blue,  yellow,  and  purple,  one  here 
and  there  being  left  of  its  natural  colour,  as  a  contrast. 
About  the  eyelids  they  arc  very  particular ;  they  pencil 
them  with  sulphuret  of  antimony.  The  hair  is  coloured 
carefully  with  indigo.  Studs  and  other  jewellery  are  worn 
in  great  profusion.' 

Not  content  with  hanging  things  round  their  nodes,  arms, 
ankles,  and  in  fact  wherever  nature  has  enabled  them  to  do 
so,  savages  also  cut  hoL'S  in  themselves  for  the  purpose. 

The  Esquimaux  from  Mackenzie  River  westward  make 
two  openings  in  their  cheeks,  one  on  each  side,  which  they 
gradually  enlarge,  and  in  which  they  wear  an  ornament 
of  stone  resembling  in  form  a  large  stud,  and  which  may 
therefore  be  called  a  cheek  stud. 

Throughout  a  great  part  of  Western  America,  and 
again  in  Africa,  we  also  find  the  custom  of  wearing  a 
piece  of  wood  through  the  central  part  of  the  lower  lip. 
A  small  hole  is  made  in  tlie  lip  during  infancy,  and  it  is 
then  extended  by  degrees  until  it  is  sometimes  as  much 
as  two  inches  long. 

Some  races  extend  the  lobe  of  the  ear  until  it  reaches 
the  shoulder  ;  others  file  the  teeth  in  various  manners. 

Dr.  J.  B.  Davis  has  a  Dyak  skull  in  which  the  six 
front  teeth  have  each  been  carefully  pierced  with  a  small 
hole,  into  which  a  pin  with  a  spherical  brass  head  has  been 

'  Laird,  Expodllion  intn  tho  Interior  o^  Africa,  vol.  ii.  p.  94. 


ORNAMENTATION    OP   THE    RKIN. 


48 


(Irivoii.  In  this  way,  the  upper  lip  beiii<if  niisetl,  tlie  shinhijj 
knob  on  each  tootli  wouKl  bo  disphi^ed.'  Some  of  tho 
African  tribes  also  chip  their  teeth  in  various  manners, 
each  community  having  a  fashion  of  its  own. 

Ornamentation  of  the  skin  is  abnost  universal  among 
♦he  lower  races  of  men.  In  some  cases  every  individual 
follows  his  own  fancy ;  in  others  each  clan  has  a  special 
pattern.  Thus,  speaking  of  Abbeokuta,  Captain  Ihirton* 
says  : — *  There  was  a  vast  variety  of  tattocis  and  ornament- 
ation, renderiu'^  them  a  serious  ditticulty  to  st^'lngers. 
The  skin  patterns  were  of  every  variety,  from  the  diminu- 
tive prick  to  the  great  gash  and  the  large  boil-like  lumps. 
They  affected  various  figures — tortoises,  alligators,  and 
the  favourite  lizard,  stars,  concentric  circles,  lozenges, 
right  lines,  welts,  gouts  of  gore,  marble  or  button-like 
knobs  of  flesh,  and  elevated  scars,  resembling  scalds, 
which  are  opened  for  the  introduction  of  fetish  medicines, 
and  to  expel  evil  influences.  In  this  country  every  tribe, 
sub-tribe,  and  even  family,  has  its  blazon,''  whose  infinite 
diversifications  may  bo  compared  witli  the  lines  and  ordi- 
naries of  European  heraldry.' 

In  South  Africa  the  Nyambanas  are  characterised  by  a 
row  of  pimples  or  warts,  about  the  size  of  a  pea,  and  ex- 
tending from  the  upper  part  of  the  forehead  to  the  tip  of 
the  nose.  Among  the  Bachapin  Kaffirs,  those  who  have 
distinguished  themselves  in  battle  are  allowed  the  privilege 
of  marking  their  thigh  with  a  long  scar,  which  is  rendered 
indelible  and  of  a  bluish  colour  by  rubbing  ashes  into 
the  fresh  wound. 

The  tribal  mark  of  the  Bunns^  (Africa)  consists'of  three 


'  Thesaurus  Craniorum,  p.  289. 

•  Abbeokuta,  vol.  i.  p.  101. 

•  Ogubonna's  family,  for  instance, 
have  three    small  squares     of   blue 


tattoo    upon   each    cheek,    combined 
with  tlie  three  Egba  cuts. 

*  Trans.  Ethn.  Soc.  vol.  t.  p.  86. 


1  (■ 


>K 


! 


4i 


TRIBE -MARKS. 


slashes  from  tlie  crown  of  the  head,  down  the  face,  towards 
tlie  mouth ;  the  ridges  of  flesh  stand  out  in  bold  relief.  This 
painful  operation  is  performed  by  cutting  the  skin,  and 
taking  out  a  strip  of  flesh ;  palm  oil  and  wood  ashes  are 
then  rubbed  into  the  wound,  thus  causing  a  thick  ridge. 

The  Bornouese  in  Central  Africa  have  twenty  cuts  or 
lines  on  each  side  of  the  face,  wdiich  are  drawn  from  the 
corners  of  the  mouth  towards  the  angles  of  the  lower  jaw 
Jind  cheekbone.  They  have  also  one  cut  in  the  centre  of 
the  forehead,  six  on  each  arm,  six  on  each  leg,  four  on 
each  breast,  and  nine  on  each  side,  just  above  the  hips. 
This  makes  91  large  cuts,  and  the  process  is  said  to  be 
extremely  painful  on  account  of  the  heat  and  flies.* 

The  women  of  Brumer  Island,  on  the  south  coast  of  New 
Guinea,  were  tattooed  on  the  face,  arms,  and  front  of  the 
body,  but  generally  not  on  the  back,  in  vertical  stripes  less 
than  an  inch  apart,  and  connected  by  zigzag  markings. 
On  the  face  these  are  more  complicated,  and  on  the  fore- 
arm and  wrist  they  were  frequently  so  elaborate  as  to 
resemble  lace-work.^  The  men  were  more  rarelj'  tattooed, 
and  then  only  with  a  few  lines  or  stars  on  the  right  breast. 
Sometimes,  however,  the  markings  consisted  of  a  double 
series  of  large  stars  and  dots  stretching  from  the  shoulder 
to  the  pit  of  the  stomach. 

The  inhabitiints  of  Tanna  have  on  their  arms  and  chests 
elevated  scars,  representing  plants,  flowers,  stars,  and 
various  other  figures.  *  The  inhabitants  of  Tazovan,  or 
Formosa,  by  a  very  painful  operation,  impress  on  their 
naked  skins  various  figures  of  trees,  flowers,  and  animals. 
The  great  men  in  Guinea  have  their  skin  flowered  like 
damask ;  and  in  Decan,  the. women  likewise  have  flowers 
cut  into  their  flesh  on  the  forehead,  the  arms,  and  the 

'  Denham,  vol.  iii.  p.  175. 

2  McGillivrny's  Voyage  of  the  Eattlosnako,  vol.  i.  p.  262. 


TATTOOING. 


45 


to 


llG 


breast,  and  the  elevated  scars  are  painted  in  colours,  and 
exhibit  the  aj^pearance  of  flowered  damask.' ' 

In  the  Tonga  Islands  *  the  men  are  tattooed  from  the 
middle  of  the  thigh  to  above  the  hips.  The  women  are 
only  tattooed  on  the  arms  and  fingers,  and  there  verv 
slightly.''*  In  the  Fiji  Islands,  on  the  contrary,  the  women 
are  more  tattooed  than  the  men.  When  tastefully  ex- 
ecuted, tattooing  has  been  regarded  by  many  .travellers  as 
a  real  ornament.  Thus  Laird  says  that  some  of  the  tattoo- 
ing in  West  Africa  '  in  the  absence  of  clothing  gives  a 
finish  to  the  skin.'' 

In  the  Gambler  Islands,  Boechcy  says,"*  *  tattooing  is  so 
universally  practised,  that  it  is  rare  to  meet  a  man  without 
it ;  and  it  is  carried  to  such  an  extent  that  the  figure  is 
sometimes  covered  with  small  checkered  lines  from  the 
neck  to  the  ankles,  though  the  breast  is  generally  exempt, 
or  only  ornamented  with  a  single  device.  In  some, 
generally  elderly  men,  the  face  is  covered  below  the  eyes, 
in  which  case  the  lines  or  net-work  are  more  open  than 
on  other  parts  of  the  body,  probably  on  account  of  the  pain 
of  the  operation,  and  terminate  at  the  upper  part  in  a 
straight  line  from  ear  to  ear,  passing  over  the  bridge  of 
the  nose.  With  these  exceptions,  to  which  we  may  add 
the  fashion,  with  some  few,  of  blue  lines,  resembling 
stockings,  from  the  middle  of  the  thigh  to  the  ankle,  the 
effect  is  becoming,  and  in  a  great  measure  destroys  the 
appearance  of  nakedness.  The  patterns  which  most  im- 
prove the  shape,  and  which  appear  to  me  peculiar  to  this 
group,  are  those  which  extend  from  the  armpits  to  the 
hips,  and  are  drawn  forward  with  a  curve  which  seems  to 
contract  the  waist,  and  at  a  short  distance  gives  the  figure 


'  Forster's  Observations  made  during 
a  Voyage  round  the  World,  p.  588. 
^  Cook's  Voyage  towards  the  South 


'  Narrative  of  an  Expedition  info 
thp  Interior  of  Africa,  vol.  i.  p.  291. 
*  Beechey,  vol.  i.  p.  138. 


\] 


:l 


M  m 


. 


Pole,  vol.  i.  p.  218. 


II 


|i 


4C 


TATTOOING. 


'   i 


an  elegance  and  outline,  not  unlike  that  of  tlic  figures 
seen  on  the  walls  of  the  Egyptian  tombs.' 

Fig.  12  represents  a  Caroline  Islander,  after  Freycinet, 
and    gives   an   idea  of  the  tattooing,  though   it   cannot 


Fio.  12. 


CAROLINE   ISLANDER. 


be  taken   as  representing  the   form  or  features  charac- 
teristic of  those  islanders. 

The  tattooing  of  the  Sandwich  Islanders  is  less  orna- 


autificial  alteration  of  form. 


47 


mental,  tlie  devices  being,  according  to  Arago,  *  unmeaning 
and  whimsical,  without  taste,  and  in  general  badly  exe- 
cuted.'^ Perhaps,  however,  the  most  beautifid  of  all  was 
that  of  the  New  Zealanders  (see  figs.  13  and  14),  who  were 
generally  tattooed  in  curved  or  spiral  lines.  The  process 
is  extremely  painful,  particularly  on  the  lips ;  but  to  shrink 
from  it,  or  even  to  show  any  signs  of  suffering  while  under 
the    operation,   would   be   thought   very   unmanly.     The 


Fig.  13. 


Fig.  14. 


•"        :;?■ 


1IEA1>   OF   NEW   ZEALANDEE. 


HEAD   OF  NEW  ZEAXANDER. 


natives  used  the  '  Moko '  or  pattern  of  their  tattooing  as  a 
kind  of  signature.  The  women  have  their  lips  tattooed 
with  horizontal  lines.  To  ha\  e  red  lips  is  thought  to  be  a 
great  reproach. 

Many  similar  cases  might  be  given  in  which  savages 
ornament  themselves,  as  they  suppose,  in  a  manner  which 
must  be  very  painful.     Perhaps  none  is  more  remarkable 


na- 


»  Arago's  Letters,  Pt.  II.  p.  147. 


it 


48 


HAIRDRESSING. 


than  the  priictice  which  wo  iind  in  several  j)arts  of  the 
world  of  modifying  the  human  form  by  means  of  tight 
bandages.  The  small  size  of  the  Chinese  ladies'  feet  is  a 
well-known  case,  but  is  less  mischievous  than  the  com- 
!/  pression  of  the  waist  as  practised  in  Europe.  Some  of  the 
American  tribes  even  modified  the  form  of  the  head.  One 
would  have  supposed  that  any  such  compression  would 
have  exercised  a  very  prejudicial  effect  on  the  intellect, 
but  as  far  as  the  existing  evidence  goes,  it  does  not  ai)pear 
to  do  so. 

The  Fijians  give  a  great  deal  of  time  and  attention 
to  their  hair,  as  is  shown  in  PI.  II.  Most  of  the  chiefs 
have  a  special  hairdresser,  to  whom  they  sometimes  devote 
several  hours  a  day.  Their  heads  of  hair  are  often  more 
than  three  feet  in  circumference,  and  Mr.  Williams  mea- 
sured one  which  was  nearly  five  feet  round.  This  forces 
them  to  sleep  on  narrow  wooden  pillows  or  neck-rests, 
which  must  be  very  uncomfortable.  They  also  dye  the 
iiair.  Black  is  the  natural  and  favourite  colour,  but 
some  prefer  white,  flaxen,  or  bright  red. 

'On  one  head,'  says  Mr.  Williams,^  '  all  the  hair  is  of  a 
uniform  height ;  but  one-third  in  front  is  ashy  or  sandy, 
and  tlie  rest  black,  a  sharply  defined  separation  dividing 
the  two  colours.  Not  a  few  are  so  ingeniously  grotesque 
as  to  appear  as  if  done  purposely  to  excite  laughter.  One 
has  a  large  knot  of  fiery  hair  on  his  crown,  all  the  rest  of 
his  head  being  bald.  Another  has  the  most  of  his  hair  cut 
away,  leaving  three  or  four  rows  oi  small  clusters,  as  if  his 
head  were  planted  with  small  paint-brushes.  A  third  has 
his  head  bare  except  where  a  large  patch  projects  over 
each  temple.  One,  two,  or  three  cords  of  twisted  hair 
often  fiill  from  the  right  temple,  a  foot  or  eighteen  inches 
long.     Some  men  -wear  a  number  of  these  braids  so  as  to 

•  Fiji  and  the  Fijians,  vol.  i.  p.  158. 


0^. 


:  a 


•j: 


riJIAN    MODES    OF    DKE3SINO    THE    HAIB. 


Plate  II. 


11    I 


I 

■ 


I! 


t. 


FIJI    HEAD-DIIESSES.  49 

cir  to  the  other.    A  mode  that  requires  great  care  has 

oad  LITf  i"*° ''-''"''  '-'^  ^^^  f^™  !^ 

head     Each  lock  13  a  perfect  cone  about  seron  inches 
long  hav,n, the  base  outwards;  so  that  the  surface    fte 

tZe2T        T'  '"'"  ""  ^^'^^  ""™^«^  of  ^-"  circles, 
t.  e    on   '"'     "  '"  '"  '''''='  ^"*'  *°^^^^^  ^•'^  -*- 


^. 


CIIAPTEE  ITI. 


MAItrJAGE   AND    EELATIONSHIP. 


gives  a  more  instructive  insight 


NOTHING,  ,  -Ir  ■ 
into  the  tri.  CMii-!  'ion  of  savages  than  their  ideas  on 
the  subject  of  rfei..i;ioni  •  -n  and  marriage ;  nor  can  the 
great  advantages  of  civilisation  be  more  conclusively 
proved  than  by  the  improvement  which  it  has  effected  in 
tlie  relation  between  thd  two  sexes. 

MiU'riage,  and  the  reladonship  of  a  child  to  its  father 
and  mother,  seem  to  us  so  natural  and  obvious,  that  we  are 
apt  to  look  on  them  as  aboriginal  and  general  to  the 
human  race.  This,  however,  is  very  far  from  being  the 
case.  The  lowest  races  have  no  institution  of  marriage ; 
true  love  is  almost  unknown  among  them ;  and  marriage, 
in  its  lowest  phases,  is  by  no  means  a  matter  of  affection 
and  companionship. 

The  Hottentots,  says  Kolben,'  *are  so  cold  and  indiffer- 
ent to  one  another  that  vou  would  think  there  was  no 
such  thing  as  love  between  them.'  Among  the  Koussa 
Kaffirs,  Lichtenstein  asserts  that  there  is  *  no  feeling  of 
love  in  marriage.'  ^  In  North  America,  the  Tinne  Indians 
had  no  word  for  *  dear '  or  *  beloved ;  *  and  the  Algonquin 
language  is  stated  to  have  contained  no  verb  meaning  '  to 
love ; '  so  that  when  the  Bible  was  translated  by  the 
missionaries  into  that  language  it  was  necessary  to  invent 
a  word  for  the  purpose. 


Kf)lben's   Ilist.   of   tho  Cape  of  ^  Travels  in  South    Africa,  vol.    i. 


Good  Hope,  vol.  i.  p.  162. 


p.  2G1. 


TUE    POSITION   OP   WOMEN   AMONG    SAVAGES. 


51 


In  Yariba,'  says  Lander  (Central  Africa),  *  niarria;^o  is 
celebrated  by  the  natives  as  unconcernedly  as  possible :  a 
man  thinks  as  little  of  taking  a  wife  as  of  cutting  an  ear 
of  corn — affection  is  altogether  out  of  the  question.*  The 
King  of  Boussa,'  he  tells  us  in  another  place,  *  when  he  is 
not  engaged  in  public  affairs,  usually  employs  all  his 
leisure  hours  in  superintending  the  occupations  of  his 
household,  and  making  his  own  clothes.  The  Midiki 
(queen)  and  he  have  distinct  establishments,  divided  for- 
tunes, and  separate  interests ;  indeed,  they  appear  to  have 
nothing  in  common  with  each  other,  and  yet  we  have 
never  seen  so  friendly  a  couple  since  leavinr  »ur  native 
country.*  Among  the  Mandingoes  marriage  it  i.  rely  a 
form  of  regulated  slavery.  Husband  and  wife  ever  laugh 
or  joke  together.*  *I  asked  Baba,'  says  Caii'^'» ,  'why  he 
did  not  sometimes  make  merry  with  his  wiv-^s.  He  replied 
that  if  he  did  he  should  not  be  able  to  ma.  a^,e  them,  for 
they  would  laugh  at  him  when  he  ordered  them  to  do 
anything.' ' 

In  India  the  Hill  tribes  of  Chittagong,  says  Captain 
Lewin,  regard  marriage  *  as  a  mere  animal  and  con- 
venient connection ; '  as  the  *  means  of  getting  their 
dinner  cooked.  They  have  no  idea  of  tenderness,  nor  of 
chivalrous  devotion.'* 

Among  the  Guyacurus  of  Paraguay  'the  bonds  of 
matrimony  are  so  very  slight,  that  when  the  parties  do 
not  like  each  other,  they  separate  without  any  further 
ceremony.  In  other  respects  they  do  not  appear  to  have 
the  most  distant  notions  of  that  bashfulness  so  natural  to 
the  rest  of  mankind.'  ^  The  Guaranis  seem  to  have  been 
in  a  very  similar  condition.® 


vol.   i. 


'  R.  find  J.  Lander's  Niger  Expedi- 
tion, vol.  i.  p.  161. 

2  Ihid.  vol.  ii.  p.  lOG.  See  also  p.  107. 
'  Travels,  vol.  i.  p.  3oO. 


*  Hill  Tracts  of  Chittagong,  p.  116. 

*  Charlevoix,    Hist,    of    Paraguiiy, 
vol.  i.  p.  91. 

*  Loc.  cit.  p.  352. 


1    f^ 


'.Vi 


<  V 


ft2 


RELATIONSHIP   AMONG   SAVAQES. 


M, 


Anioiif^  the  SamoyeJes  '  of  Siberia  tlic  husbands  show 
little  aftoction  for  their  wives,  and,  according  to  Pallas, 
*  daignent  a-peino  lour  dire  line  parole  do  douceur.* 

In  Australia  *  little  real  affection  exists  between  hus- 
bands and  wives,  and  young  men  value  a  wife  principally 
for  her  services  as  a  slave  ;  in  fact,  when  asked  why  they 
are  anxious  to  obtjiin  wives,  their  usual  reply  is,  that  they 
may  get  wood,  water,  and  food  for  them,  and  carry  what- 
ever property  they  possess.'  ^  The  position  of  women  in 
Australia  seems  indeed  to  be  wretched  in  the  extreme. 
They  are  treated  with  the  utmost  brutality,  beaten  and 
speared  in  the  limbs  on  the  most  trivial  provocation.  Few 
women,  says  Eyre,  *  will  be  found,  upon  examination,  to  bo 
free  from  frightful  scars  upon  the  head,  or  the  marks  of 
spear  wounds  about  the  body.  I  have  seen  a  young  woman 
who,  from  the  number  of  these  marks,  appeared  to  have 
been  almost  riddled  with  spear  wounds.  If  at  all  good- 
looking  their  position  is,  if  possible,  even  worse  than 
otherwise.' 

Again,  our  family  system,  which  regards  a  child  as 
equally  related  to  his  father  and  his  mother,  seems  so 
natural  that  we  experience  a  feeling  of  surprise  on  meet- 
ing with  any  other  system.  Yet  we  shall  find,  I  think, 
reason  for  concluding  that  a  man  was  first  regarded  as 
merely  related  to  his  family ;  then  to  his  mother  but  not 
to  his  father ;  then  to  his  father  and  not  to  his  mother ; 
and  only  at  last  to  both  father  and  mother.  Even  among 
the  Eomans,  the  word  *  familia '  meant  *  slaves,'  and  a 
man's  wife  and  children  only  formed  a  part  of  his  family 
inasmuch  as  they  were  his  slaves  ;  so  that  a  son  who  was 
emancipated — that  is  to  say,  made  free — had  no  share  in 
the  inheritance,  having  ceased  to  belong  to  the  family. 
We  shall,  however,  be  better  able  to  understand  this  part 

'  Pallas's  Voyages,  vol.  iv.  p.  91.  '  Eyre's  Discoveries,  vol.  ii.  p.  321. 


DIFFERENT    KINDS    OF    ilAilRIAGE. 


68 


a 


of  the  (jiiosiiou  when  wo  have  coiiHulered  the  various 
phases  which  marriago  presents  ;  for  it  is  by  no  means 
of  an  uniform  character,  but  takes  ahnost  every  possibb 
form.  In  some  cases  nothing  of  the  sort  appears  to  exiyt 
at  all;  in  others  it  is  essentially  temporary,  and  exists 
only  till  the  birth  of  the  child,  when  both  man  and  woman 
are  free  to  mate  themselves  afresh.  In  others,  the  man 
buys  the  woman,  who  becomes  as  much  his  projierty  as 
his  horse  or  his  dog. 

In  Sumatra  there  were  formerly  three  perfectly  distinct 
kinds  of  marriage  :  the  '  Jugur,'  in  wliich  the  man  pur- 
chased the  woman ;  the  *  Ambel-anak,'  in  which  the 
woman  purchased  the  man  ;  and  the  *  Semando,'  in  which 
they  joined  on  terms  of  equality.  In  the  mode  of  niu,n  iago 
by  Ambel-anak,  says  Marsder/  *  the  father  of  a  virgin 
makes  choice  of  some  young  man  for  her  husband,  generally 
from  an  inferior  family,  wliich  renounces  all  further  right 
to,  or  interest  in,  him ;  and  he  is  taken  into  the  house  of  his 
father-in-law,  who  kills  a  buffalo  on  the  occasion,  and  re- 
ceives twenty  dollars  from  his  son's  relations.  After  this, 
the  buruk  baik'  iiia  (the  good  and  bad  of  him)  is  invested  in 
the  wife's  family.  If  he  murders  or  robs,  they  pay  the 
bangun,  or  the  fine.  If  he  is  murdered,  they  receive  the 
bafigun.  They  are  liable  to  any  debts  he  may  contract  in 
marriage ;  those  prior  to  it  remaining  with  his  parents. 
He  lives  in  the  family,  in  a  state  between  that  of  a  son  and 
a  debtor.  He  partakes  as  a  son  of  what  the  house  affords, 
but  has  no  property  in  himself.  His  rice  plantation,  the 
produce  of  his  pepper  garden,  with  everything  that  he  can 
gain  or  earn,  belongs  to  the  family.  He  is  liable  to  be 
divorced  at  their  pleasure,  and  though  he  has  children, 
must  leave  all^  and  return  naked  as  he  came.' 


I 


'  Mars-den's  Hist,  of  Sumatra,  p.  2G2. 


:li 


64 


DIFFERENT   KINDS   OP    MAIlllIAOE. 


*Tho  Scmimdo  '  is  a  rcjijular  treaty  bctwcoii  the  parties, 

on  the  footing  of  equality.     The  adat  paid  to  the  girl's 

friends  has  usually  been  twelve  dollars.     The  agreement 

stipulates   that   all   effects,  gains,  or  earnings  are  to  bo 

e(pially  the  property  of  both ;  and,  in  case  of  divorce  by 

mutual  consent,  the  stock,  debts,  and  credits  are  to  be 

equally  divided.     If  the  man  only  insists  on  the  divorce, 

he  gives  the  woman  her  half  of  the  effects,  and  loses  the 

twelve  dollars  he  has  paid.     If  the  woman  only  claims  the 

divorce,  she  forfeits  her  right  to  the  proportion  of  the 

efl'ects,   but   is   entitled   to   keep   her  tikar,  bautal,  and 

dandan   (paraphernalia),  and  her   relations  are  liable  to 

l^ay  back  the  twelve  dollars  ;  but  it  is  seldom  demanded. 

This  mode,  doubtless  the  most  conformable  to  our  ideas 

of  conjugal  right  and  felicity,  is  that  which  the  chiefs  of 

tlie  Rejang  country  have  formally  consented  to  establish 

throughout  their  jurisdiction,   and   to   their   orders   the 

influence  of  the  Malayan  priests  will  contribute  to  give 

elficacy.' 

The  Jugur  marriage  need  not  be  particularly  described. 

The   Hassaniyeh  Arabs   have  a  very  curious  form  of 

marriage,  which  may  be  called  *  three-quarter '  marriage  ; 

that  is  to  say,  the  woman  is  legally  married  for  three  days 

out  of  four,  remaining  perfectly  free  for  the  fourth. 

In  Ceylon  there  were  two  kinds  of  marriage— the  Deega 
marriage,  and  the  Beena  marriage.  In  the  former  the 
woman  went  to  her  husband's  hut ;  in  the  latter  the  man 
transferred  himself  to  that  of  the  woman.  Moreover, 
according  to  Davy,  marriages  in  Ceylon  were  provisional 
for  the  first  fortnight,  at  the  expiration  of  which  they 
were  either  annulled  or  confirmed.^ 
Among  the  Reddies  '  of  Southern  India  a  very  singular 

•  Marsflen's  Hist,  of  Sumatra,  p.2G3.         •  Shortt,   Trans.    Etlin.   Soc.    New 
»  Duv/s  Ci'^lon,  p.  28G.  Series,  vol.  vii.  p.  lUl. 


the 

I  an 

Iver, 

)nal 

[hey 

liar 

I  New 


; 


rOLYAN'DIlY. 


55 


custom  prevails: — *A  young  woman  of  sixteen  or  twenty 
years  of  a;,'t;  may  be  marrioJ  to  a  boy  of  live  or  six  years  ! 
She,  however,  lives  with  some  other  adult  male — i)t'rhai)3 
a  maternal  unele  or  cousin — but  is  not  allowed  to  form 
a  connection  with  the  father's  relatives  ;  occasionally  it 
may  be  the  boy-husband's  father  himself — tint  is,  the 
woman's  father-in-law  !  Should  there  bo  children  iiom 
these  liaisons,  they  are  fathered  on  the  boy-husband. 
When  the  boy  grows  up  the  wife  is  either  old  or  past 
child-bearing,  when  ho  in  his  turn  takes  up  with  some 
other  "  boy's  "  wife  in  a  manner  precisely  similar  to  his 
own,  and  procreates  childi.n  for  the  boy -husband.' 

Polyandry,  or  the  marriage  of  one  woman  to  several 
men  at  (mce,  is  more  common  than  is  generally  supposed, 
though  much  less  so  than  polygamy,  which  is  almost  uni- 
versally permitted  among  the  lower  races  of  men.  One 
reason — though  I  do  not  say  the  only  one — for  this  is 
obvious  when  pointed  out.  Long  after  our  children  are 
weaned  milk  remains  an  important;  and  necessary  part  of 
their  food.  We  supply  this  want  with  cow's  milk ;  but 
among  people  who  have  not  domesticated  animals  this 
cannot,  of  course,  be  done,  and  consequently  the  children 
are  not  weaned  until  they  are  tw^o,  three,  or  even  four 
years  old.  During  all  this  period  the  husband  and  wife 
generally  remain  apart,  and  consequently,  unless  a  man 
has  several  wives,  he  is  often  left  without  any  at  all. 
Thus  in  Fiji  *  the  relatives  of  a  woman  take  it  as  a  public 
insult  if  an;-  child  should  be  born  before  the  castomary 
three  or  four  years  have  elapsed,  and  they  consider  them- 
selves in  duty  bound  to  avenge  it  in  an  equally  public 
manner.'  * 

It  seems  to  us  natural  and  proper  that  husband  and 

'  A  Mission  to  Fiji,  p.  191, 


'  1 


I  :lr 


50 


RESTIIICTION    ON    CONJUGAL    INTKRCOUBRK. 


•wife  should  enjoy  as  iimeli  as  possible  the  society  of  one 
another ;  but,  among  the  Turkomans,  according  to  Fruser, 
for  six  months  or  a  ycjir,  or  even  sometimes  two  years, 
after  a  marriajxe,  the  husband  was  onlv  allowed  to  visit 
his  wife  by  stealth. 

Klenim  states  that  the  same  is  the  case  among  the 
Circassians  until  the  first  child  is  born.  Among  the 
Fijiaus  husbands  and  wiv.'s  do  not  usually  spend  the  night 
together.  In  Chittagong  (India),  although,  ^  according  to 
European  ideas,  the  standard  of  morality  among  the 
Kyoungtha  is  low,'  yet  husband  and  wife  are  on  no 
account  permitted  to  sleep  together  until  seven  days  after 


nia  rria  ge. ' 


Burcldiardt  "^  states,  that  in  Arabia,  after  ilie  wedding, 
if  it  can  be  called  so,  the  bride  returns  to  her  mother's 
tent,  but  again  runs  away  in  the  evening,  and  repeats 
these  flights  several  times,  till  she  finally  returns  to  her 
tent.  ISlie  does  not  go  to  live  in  her  husband's  tent  for 
some  months,  perhaps  not  even  till  a  full  year,  from  the 
wedding-day. 

Lafitau  informs  us  that  among  the  North  American 
Indians  the  husband  only  visits  the  wife  as  it  were  by 
stealth : — *  ils  n'osent  aller  dans  les  cabanes  particuliers 
on  habitent  leurs  epouses,  que  durant  Tobscurite  de  la 
iniit  .  .  .  .  ce  serait  une  action  extraordinaire  de  s'y  pre- 
senter le  jour.'  3         ■ 

In  Futa,  one  of  the  "West  African  kingdoms,  it  is  said 
that  no  husband  is  allowed  to  see  his  wife's  face  until  he 
has  been  three  years  married. 

In  Sparta,  and  in  Crete,  according  to  Xenophon  and 
Strabo,  married  people  were  for  some  time  after  the 
wedding  only  allowed  to  see  one  another  as  it  were  clan- 


Lcwin's  Hill  Tracts  of  Chittagong,     quotocl  in  MLenrian's  Primitive  ]\rar- 


^\. 


r>urekhardt'sNi>top,  vol.vi.  p.  209, 


riapp,  p.  302. 

3  Luc.  cit.  vol.  i.  p.  .576. 


I 


Al'.SKNCE    OF    MARIUAGK    CKKKMONY. 


57 


destinely ;  »iir1  a  similar  custom  is  said  to  liave  existed 
amoii<^  the  Lyeiaiis.  So  far  as  I  am  aware,  no  satis- 
factory exi)laiiatIon  of  this  custom  has  yet  been  jjiven.  I 
shall,  however,  presently  venture  to  sug-<3'est  one. 

There  are  manv  cases  in  which  savaws  have  no  such 
thinj^  as  any  ceremony  of  marriage.  I  have  said  nothiufj;', 
says  Metz,  '  about  the  marriage  ceremonies  of  the  Dadagas 
(llindostan),  because  they  can  scarcely  be  said  to  have 
any.'  The  Kurumbas,  another  tribe  of  the  Neilgherry 
Hills,  'have  no  marriage  \2crcmony.'  '  According  to 
Colonel  Dalton,'  the  Keriahs  of  Central  India  '  have  no 
word  for  marriage  in  their  own  language,  and  the  only 
ceremony  used  appears  to  be  little  more  than  a  soi*t  f 
public  recognition  of  the  fact.'  So  also  the  Spanish  mis- 
sionaries found  no  word  for  marriage,  nor  any  marriage 
ceremony,  among  the  Indians  of  California.*'  Farther 
north,  among  the  Kutchin  Indians,  '  there  is  no  ceremony 
observed  at  marriage  or  birth.' ■* 

The  marital  rite,  says  Schoolcraft,  'among  our  tribes' 
{i.e.  the  Eedskins  of  the  United  States)  *  is  nothing  more 
than  the  personal  consent  of  the  parties,  without  recpiiring 
any  concurrent  act  of  a  priesthood,  a  magistrac}',  or  wit- 
nesses ;  the  act  is  ar.sumed  by  the  parties,  without  the 
necessity  of  any  extraneous  sanction.'  ^ 

According  to  Brett,  there  is  no  marriage  ceremony 
among  the  Arawaks  of  South  America."  Martins  makes 
the  same  assertion  with  reference  to  the  Brazilian  tribes 
generally,^  and  the  same  is  the  case  with  some  of  the 
Australian  tribes.** 

There  is,  says  Bruce,  *no  such  thing  as  marriage  in 
Abyssinia,  unless  that  which  is  contracted  by  nnitual  con- 


'  Truns.  EUin.  Snc.  vol.  vii.  p.  27G. 
'  II  ill.  vol.  vi.  p.  20. 

*  ISiU'giii'tj.^iuiili.-onianlJcport,  hSOo, 
p.  o<IS. 

'  Nniillisdiiian  lu  po  I,  KSIJli,  p.  .'12(i. 


"  Iiulian  Tribes,  p.  218,  132. 
••  (iuiiiin.  p.  1(11. 
'  Liic.  cif.  p.  .01. 

"  Here's  L»iBi;ovt.i'io8,  vul.  ii.  p.  319 
4 


ii 


58 


ABSENCR    OF    ANY    NAME    FOR    MARRIAOT!. 


sent,  witliont  oilier  form,  subsisting  only  till  dissolved  by 
dissent  of  one  or  other,  and  to  be  renewed  or  repeated  as 
often  as  it  is  aj^-reetible  to  both  parties,  who,  when  they 
please,  live  together  again  as  man  and  wife,  after  having 
been  divorced,  had  children  by  others,  or  whether  they 
have  been  married,  or  had  children  with  others  or  not. 
I  remember  to  have  once  been  at  Koseam  in  presence  of 
the  Iteglie  (tlie  queen),  when,  in  the  circle,  there  was  a 
woman  of  great  quality,  and  seven  men  who  had  all  been 
her  husbands,  none  of  whom  was  the  happy  spouse  at  that 
time.' '  And  yet  '  there  is  no  country  in  the  world  wliere 
there  are  so  many  churches.'  ^  Among  the  Bedouin  Arabs 
there  is  a  marriage  ceremony  in  the  case  of  a  girl,  but 
the  re-marriago  of  a  widow  is  not  thought  sufficiently 
important  to  deserve  one.  Speke  says,  '  there  arc  no  such 
things  as  marriages  in  Uganda.'  ^ 

Of  the  Mandingoes  (West  Africa),  Caillie'*  says  that 
husband  and  wife  are  not  united  by  any  ceremony ;  and 
Hutton '  makes  the  same  statement  as  regards  the  Aslian- 
tees.  In  Congo  and  Angola  "^  '  they  use  no  peculiar  cere- 
monies in  marriage,  nor  scarce  trouble  themselves  for 
consent  of  friends.'  La  Vaillant  says  that  there  are  no 
marriage  eereino/iies  among  the  Hottentots ;  '  and  the 
Bushmen,  according  to  Mr.  AVood,  had  in  their  language 
no  means  of  distinguishing  an  unmarried  from  a  married 
girl.8 

Yet  wc  must  not  assume  that  marriage  is  necessarily 
and  always  lightly  regarded,  wliere  it  is  unaccompanied  by 
ceremonial.  Thus  '  marriage  in  this  island  (Tahiti),  as 
appeared  to  us,'   says  Cook,   '  is   nothing  more  than  an 

*  Bruce' ><  Travel?,  vol.  iv.  p.  487.  "  Astley's  Coll.  of  Voyages,  vol.  iii. 
2  Il,i(i.  \ol.  V.  p.  1.                                   p.  !->•_' 1,  227. 

^  Journal,  p.  ^Gl.  *   Voyages,  vol.  ii.  p.  oS, 

*  Loc.  cif.  vol.  i.  p.  o.')().  *  Natural  History  of  Man,    vol.  i. 

*  Kleiiuu,  Culuir  d.  lleuscheu,  vol.     p.  2t5y. 
iii.  p   -iM. 


M 


h 


\ 


MARRIAGE    CEREMONIES. 


59 


'ied 


as 

an 

,1.  lii. 


aLTroomeiit  between  tlic  man  and  woman,  with  wliicli  the 
priest  has  no  concern.  \Vhere  it  is  contracted  it  appears 
to  be  pretty  well  kept,  though  sometimes  the  parties  sepa- 
rate by  mutual  consent,  and  in  that  case  a  divorce  takes 
place  with  as  little  trouble  as  the  marriage.  But  though 
the  priesthood  has  laid  the  peoi)le  under  no  tax  for  a 
nuptial  benediction,  there  are  two  operations  which  it  has 
appropriated,  and  from  which  it  derives  considerable  ad- 
vantages. One  is  tattooing,  and  the  other  circumcision.'  ' 
Yot  he  elsewhere  informs  us  that  married  women  in  Tahiti 
are  as  faithful  to  their  husbands  as  in  any  other  part  of 
the  world. 

We  must  bear  in  mind  that  there  is  a  great  distinction 
between  what  may  be  called  ^  lax  '  and  '  brittle  '  marriages. 
In  some  countries  the  marriage  tie  may  be  broken  with 
the  greatest  ease,  and  yet,  as  long  as  it  last^,  is  strictly 
respected;  while  in  other  countries  the  very  reverse  is 
the  case. 

Perhaps  on  the  whole  an}'  marriage  ceremony  is  better 
than  none  at  all,  but  some  races  have  practices  at  mar- 
riage which  are  extremely  objectionable.  Some,  also,  are 
very  curious,  and  no  doubt  symbolical.  Thus,  among  the 
Canadian  Indians,  Carver  ^  says  that  when  the  chief  has 
pronounced  the  pair  to  be  married,  *  the  bridegroom  turns 
round,  and,  bending  his  body,  takes  his  wife  on  his  back, 
in  which  manner  he  carries  her,  amidst  the  exclamations 
of  the  spectators,  to  his  tent.'  Bruce,  in  Abyssinia, 
observed  an  identical  custom.  When  the  ceremony  is 
over,  he  says,  Hhe  bridegroom  takes  his  lady  on  his 
shoulders,  and  carries  her  off  to  his  house.  If  it  be  at  a 
distance  he  does  the  same  thing,  but  only  goes  entirely 
round  about  the  bride's  house.'  ^ 


'  Cook's  Vovi\p;e  roxmd  the  World,     loc.  elf.  vol.  iv.  p.  299, 
ITiwvkeswortli's  VovMircs,  vol.  ii.  p.  2K).  *  Travi'ls,  p.  ."{74. 

L'or    Cai'uliiio    Islaiuls,    mm    Kliiniii,  ^  \  vi.  vii.  p.  67. 


60 


I  '•  % 


ABSENCE   OP    MARRIAGE. 


,'lieTi  tlie  Lridiil 


•lies  the  bridc- 


In  Cliina,  wlien  the  briam  procession 
groom's  lionse,  the  bride  is  carried  into  the  house  by  a 
matron,  and  *  lifted  over  a  pan  of  charcoal  at  the  door.' ' 

We  shall  jDresently  see  that  these  are  no  isolated  cases, 
nor  is  the  act  of  lifting  the  bride  over  the  bridegroom's 
threshold  an  act  without  a  meaning.  I  shall  presently 
mention  many  allied  customs,  to  the  importance  and 
significance  of  which  our  attention  has  recently  been 
called  by  Mr.  M'Lennan,  in  his  masterly  work  on  '  rrimi- 
tive  Marriage.' 

I  will  now  attempt  to  trace  up  the  custom  of  marriage 
in  its  gradual  develoimient.  In  the  Andaman  Islands,^ 
Sir  Edward  Belcher  states  that  the  custom  is  for  the  man 
and  woman  to  remain  together  until  the  child  is  weaned, 
when  they  separate  as  a  matter  of  course,  and  each  seoks 
a  new  jDartner.  The  Bushmen  of  South  Africa  are  stat  'd 
to  be  entirely  without  marriage.  Among  the  Nau's  (India), 
as  Buchanan  tells  us,  '  no  one  knows  his  father,  and  every 
man  looks  on  his  sister's  children  as  his  heirs.'  The  Tee- 
hurs  of  Oude  'live  together  almost  iiidiscrimlTiatels^  in 
large  communities,  and  even  when  two  people  are  re- 
garded as  married  the  tie  is  bu+  ainal.'^  Although  in 
this  state  of  things  nicirriage,  in  fLe  proj^er  sense  of  the 
term,  cannot  be  said  to  exist  at  all,  still,  for  the  sake  of 
convenience,  we  may  term  it  a  condition  of  communal 
marriage  ;  and  among  the  numerous  cases  in  which  more 
or  less  isolated  races  of  men  have  made  considerable  j)ro- 
gress  in  some  directions,  while  remaining  very  backward 
in  others,  there  is  perhaps  hardly  any  more  remarkable 
case  than  the  backwardness  (until  lately)  of  the  Sand- 
Vv'ul)    Islanders  in   their   social  relations,  as   manifested 


'  '').avif    ThcChinoso,  vol.  i.  p.  285.      Wiitson,  and   J.  "W.  Kayr,  puMishfd 
'r.j  >.  Etln  .  ;W.  vol.  v.  p.  45.  by  the  Iiidiiii).  Govcrnmeut,  vol.  ii.  pi. 


i  ^ 


'JI.o    Icoplc   of   Ihdy.u    by    J.    F.      So. 


RELATIONSHIPS   INDEPENDENT   OF   MAFvRIAGE. 


Gl 


in  tlieir  langnago.     This  is  sliowii  in  tlie  following  tiiblo 
thus:  — 


i 


Kni)iina  si-'iiifics 

1  O 


< 


]\hikna  kiina 


Jfmraiivi.  EnglisJi. 

r  Croat  f^randfatlior 
Great  ^rcat  undo 
Groat/  granihuotlicr 
Groat  ri^'and  aunt 
Grandfatlior 
Granduiu'lo 
GranJmotlicr 
Gran  daunt 
Gi-andfatlior 
Granchmclo 
Grandmother 
Grandauut. 
Father 

Fatlier's  brotlior 
Father's  brothcr-hi-law 
]^[other's  brother 
Motlicr's  hrothor-iu-law 
Grandfather's  brother's  son. 

r^Cotlier 
brother's  sister 

:  i\rother's  sister-in-hiw 
Fatlier's  sister 
Father's  sister-in-law, 

^Son 
Sister's  son 
Brother's  son 
Brother's  son's  son 
Kaikee  kana    =    <^  Brotlier's  daughter's  son 

Sister's  son's  son 
Sister's  daughter's  son 
Mother's  sister's  sou's  son 
Mother's  brother's  son's  son. 
Brother's  son's  wifo 
Brother's  daughter's  husband 
Sister's  sou's  wifo 
.Sister's  daughter's  husband. 


Makua  walieona  = 


liunona 


62 


SOUTnSEA    ST.STT'M    OF   RELATIONSniP. 


Walioena 


Kiu\a 

Piuialua 
Kaikoaka 


< 


Wife's  sister 
Brotlior's  vvifo 
Wife's  brother's  wifo 
Father's  brother's  son's  wifo 
Father's  sister's  son's  wifo 
]\[cther's  sister's  son's  wifo 
Mother's  brother's  son's  wifo. 
r  Husband 

<  Husband's  brother 
t.Sister's  husband. 
Wife's  sister's  Imsband  (urolhcr-in-law). 
Wife's  brotlicr. 


1     !| 


The  key  of  this  Ilawaian  or  Sandvvicli  Island  '  system  is 
the  idea  conveyed  in  the  word  waheena  (woman).    Thus — 

^  Yvifo 

J  Wife's  sister 

vvaheena        =       S  r*     n      '       •/» 

I  lirother  s  wile 

L  Wife's  brother's  wife. 


All  these  are  equally  related  to  each  hnsband.     Hence  the 
'    word — 

Kaikce  =   Child,  also  signifies  the  brothia''s  wife's  child; 

and  no  doubt  the  wife's  lister's  child,  and  the  wife's 
brother's  wife's  child.  So,  also,  as  the  sister  is  wife  to 
the  brotlier-in-l;\w  (though  not  to  her  brother),  and  as  the 
brother- ill -law  i:j  1  usband  to  his  brother's  wife,  he  is  con- 
sequentl"'  a  father  to  his  brotlier's  children.  Hence 
'  Kaikee '  air*  raviuo  'sister's  son'  and  *  brotlier's  son.' 
In  fact  *  ICaike  *  *  and  '  WaheencL  "  correspond  to  our  words 
*  child  '  n.:id  "wx  lan,'  and  there  are  apparently  no  words 


'  Morgan,  Proceedings  of  the  American  Association,  18G8. 


SOUTHSEA  SYSTEM  OF  KELATIONSnir. 


G3 


IM 


answering  to  *  son,'  *  claiiglitcr,'  *\vife,'  or  *  liusLancL' 
That  this  does  not  arise  from  poverty  of  hin<^ni{i<,'e  is 
evident,  because  the  same  system  discriminates  between 
other  rehitionships  whicli  we  do  not  distinguish. 

Feriiaps  the  contrast  is  most  clearly  shown  in  the  terms 
for  brother-in-law  and  sister-in-law. 

Thus,  when  a  woman  is  speaking  — 

Sister-in-law  =   husband's  brother's  wife  =   punalna 
Sistor-iu-]a\v  =  hvisband's  sister  =   kaikouka. 

Bat  brother-in-law  whether  sister's  "I     ^  ^^^^^  ,.^^  husband, 
husband  or  husband's  bi'otlicr  J 

When,  on  the  contrary,  a  man  is  speaking — 

Sister-in-law  =   wife's  sister       =  walicena,  i.e.  wifo 
Sister-in-law   =   brother's  wife  =   walieena,  i.e.  wifo. 


I' 


the 


nee 


3on. 

lords 

n'ds 


And  so — 

Brother-in-law 
Brother-in-law 


wife's  brother  =  kaiko:ika 

wife's  sister's  husband  =  punalua. 


Thus  a  woman  lias  husbands  and  sisters-in-law,  but  no 
brothers-ill-law ;  a  man,  on  the  contrary,  lias  wives  and 
brothers-in-law,  but  no  sisters-in-law.  The  same  idea, 
runs  through  all  other  relationships  :  cousins,  for  instance, 
are  called  brothers  and  sisters. 

So  again,  while  the  Eomans  distinguished  between  the 

Father's  brcther  =  patruns,  and  the  mother's  brother  = 

avunculus 
Father's    sistoi     =     amila,    and    the    mother's    sister     = 

matertera  j 

the  first  two  in  Ilawaian  arc  malcua  kana,  which  also 
signifies  father ;  and  the  last  two  are  makuii.  waheena, 
which  also  means  mother. 

Thus  the  idea  of  marriage  does  not,  in  fact,  enter  into 


i!!l 


tl' 


I! 


04 


TODA    SYSTEM    OF   llELATIONSUIP. 


llie  irawaian  sy.stem  ofiTlationsliij-).    Uiiclosliip,  aniitsliip, 
coiusiiisliip,  arc  lyiiorcd  ;  and  wr  have  only — 

(ii'aii(l[)ai'CMi<s 

])i'otliers  atid  sislors 
Childivn  and 
Gmiidcluldren. 

Hero  it  is  clear  iliat  tlio  cliild  is  related,  to  tlic  j^roup. 

It  is  not  specially  related  either  to  its  father  or  its  mother, 

ho  stand  in  the  same  relation  as  mere  uncles  and  annts; 

BO  that  every  child  has  several  fathers  and  several  mothers. 

TIkto  are,  I  think,  reasons  in  the  social  habits  of  these 
islanders  which  <^o  far  to  exjdain  the  persistence  of  this 
archiiic  nomenclature.  From  the  mildness  of  tlio  climate 
and  the  abundance  of  food,  children  soon  become  inde- 
pendent; tlio  in-evalenco  of  largo  houses,  used  as  mere 
dormitories,  and  the  curious  ptcjadico  against  eating  in 
common,  must  also  have  greatly  tended  to  retard  the 
development  of  sj)ecial  family  feelings.  Yet  the  systeni 
of  uomenclatuie  above  mentioned  did  not  correspojid  with 
the  actu.v^  state  of  society  as  found  by  Captain  Cook  and 
other  early  voyagers. 

Among  the  Todas  of  the  Neilgherry  Hills,  however, 
\vhen  a  man  marric«;  a  girl  she  becomes  the  wife  of  all 
his  brothers  as  they  successively  reach  manhood ;  and 
they  also  become  the  husbands  of  all  her  sisters  as  they 
become  old  enough  to  marry.  In  this  case  *  the  first-born 
cliild  is  fathered  upon  the  eldest  brother,  the  next-born  on 
the  second,  and  so  on  throughout  the  series.  Notwith- 
standing tliis  unnatural  system,  the  Todas,  it  must  be  con- 
fessed, exhibit  much  fondness  and  attachment  towards 
their  offsprng ;  more  so  than  their  practice  of  mixed 
intercourse  w^ould  seem  to  foster.' ' 

>  Slioitt.  Tnius.  Etlm.  .Sue.  N.S.  vol.  vii,  p.  'JtO. 


rRi:vAi-r:N('K  or  adoptfon. 


(>:» 


In  the  Toiti^iirs  of  rndiii,  also,  wo  liavt*  a  case  in  uliicli 
it  is  actually  recorded  that  '  brothers,  uncles,  and  nephews 
hold  their  wives  in  connnon.'  '  ^o  also,  jiccordin<jf  to 
Nicolaus, '^  the  Galactophaiji  liad  coninuuuil  ni:irriii^-e, 
*  where  they  called  all  old  men  fathers,  yonn<^*  men  sons, 
and  those  of  equal  ngo  brothers.'  *  Among  the  Sioux  and 
some  other  North  American  tribes  the  custom  is  to  buy 
the  eldest  of  the  chief's  dauf^hters,  then  the  others  all 
belonf^  to  him,  and  are  taken  to  wife  at  such  times  as  the 
husband  sees  fit.'  '  Such  social  conditions  as  these  tend 
to  explain  the  frequency  of  adoption  amon<^  the  lower 
races  of  men,  and  the  fact  that  it  is  often  considered  io 
bo  as  close  a  connection  as  real  parenta|:^e.  Amon^^  tlie 
Esquimaux,  Captain  Lyon  tells  us  that  '  this  curious  con- 
nection binds  the  parties  as  firmly  together  as  the  ties  of 
blood ;  and  an  adopted  son,  if  senior  to  one  by  nature,  is 
the  heir  to  all  the  family  riches.'  * 

In  Central  Africa,  Denham  states  that  '  the  practice  of 
adopting  children  is  very  prevalent  among  the  Felatahs ; 
and  though  they  have  sons  and  daughters  of  their  own, 
the  adopted  child  generally  becomes  hen*  to  the  whole 
property.''"' 

*  It  is  a  custom,'  says  Mariner,''  *  in  the  Tonga  Islands  for 
women  to  be  what  they  call  mothers  to  children  or  grown- 
up young  x)ersons  who  are  not  their  own,  for  the  purpose 
of  providing  them,  or  seeing  that  they  are  provided,  with 
all  the  conveniences  of  life  ;'  this  is  often  done  even  if  the 
natural  mother  be  still  living,  in  which  case  the  adopted 
mother  'is  rej^arded  the  same   as   the  natural  mother.' 


'  1 


*  PuLois'  Description  of  tlif  Pt'Oiile  *  Donliam's  Travels  in  Africa,  vol. 
of  Iiulia,  p.  3.  iv.  p.  131. 

-  Ijachofon,Das  Muttcrrcr'hf,  p.  21.  *  Mariner's  Tonga  Islands,  vol.  ii. 

'  Ethn.  Journal,  18G9,  p.  2b0.  p.  98. 

•  Journal,  p.  353. 


OG 


THE    MIT,K-TIE. 


f     I' 


Amoii}^  ilio  Itonians,  iilso,  adoption  was  an  iiniiortunt 
feature,  and  was  eilected  by  the  symbol  of  a  mock  l>irlli, 
without  wbieli  it  was  not  rog-ardod  ms  comidcte.  This 
custom  seems  to  have  continued  down  to  the  time  of 
Nervii,  who,  in  adopting  Tnijan,  transferred  tlio  cere- 
mony from  the  nuirriii<^-e-bed  to  the  temple  of  Ju})iter.' 
Diodorus  "^  gives  a  very  curious  account  of  the  same 
custom  as  it  existed  iimong  the  Creeks,  mentioning  that 
Juno  adopted  Hercules  by  going  through  a  ceremony  of 
mock  birth. 

In  other  cases  the  symbol  of  adoption  represented  not 
the  birth,  but  the  milk-tie.  Thus,  in  Circassia,  the  woman 
of  red  her  breast  to  the  person  she  was  adopting.  In 
•Abyssinia,  Parkyn  tells  us  that  'if  a  man  wishes  to  be 
adopted  as  the  son  of  one  of  superior  station  or  influence, 
ho  takes  his  hand,  and,  sucking  one  of  his  fingers,  declares 
himself  to  be  his  "  child  by  adoption  ;"  and  his  new  father 
is  bound  to  assist  him  as  far  as  he  can.' ' 

The  same  idea  underlies  perhaps  the  curious  Esquimaux 
habit  of  licking  anything  which  is  presented  to  them, 
apparently  in  token  of  ownership.  "• 

Dieffenbach^  also  mentions  the  practice  of  licking  a 
present  in  New  Zealand ;  here,  however,  it  is  the  donor 
who  does  so.  In  the  Tonga  Is  .ands.  Captain  Cook  tells  us 
that  the  natives  *  have  a  singular  custom  of  putting  every- 
thing you  give  them  to  their  heads,  by  way  of  thanks  as  we 
conjectured.'  ^ 

Assuming  then  that  the  communal  marriage  system 
shown  in  the  preceding  pages  to  prevail,  or  have  prevailed, 
so  -widely  among  races  in  a  low  stage  of  civilisation,  repre- 
sents the  primitive  and  earliest  social  condition  of  man,  we 

'  Dafi  MuUcrrecht,  p.  2ri4.  p.  34. 

2  IV.  39.    S(>o  Appendix.  *  New  Zealand,  vol.  ii.  p.  104. 

'  Pavkyn's  Abyssinia,  p.  IDS.  ^  Voyage  towards  the   South   Pole, 

*  Frimklin's  Journeys,  1819-22,  vol.  i  vol.  i.  p.  221.   . 


OIUOINAL    OR   COMMUNAL    MARRIAGE. 


\cr    a 


I 


now  conic  to  coiisidor  tlio  various  Avnys  in  wliieli  it  inwy 
have  boon  broken  up  and  replaced  by  individual  niarriajj^o. 

^roniosquiou  lays  it  down,  almost  as  an  axiom,  iliiit 
*  I'obligation  nuturcllo  qu'a  le  pore  do  nourrir  ses  onfanls 
a  fait  otablir  Ic  mariaf,'0,  qui  declare  celui  qui  doit  remplir 
cette  oblij^'ation.' '  Elsewhere  lie  states  that  '  il  est  arrive 
dans  tons  les  pays  et  dans  tons  les  teni2)s  que  la  religion 
s\!st  melee  des  mariages.' "  IIow  far  these  assertion  are 
from  the  truth  will  be  conclusively  shown  in  the  following 
piiges. 

liachofen  ^  and  M'Lennan,*  (he  two  most  recent  authors 
who  have  studied  this  subject,  both  agree  that  the  primi- 
tive condition  of  man,  socially,  was  one  of  pure  lletairisni,'^ 
when  marriage  did  not  exist ;  or  as  we  may  perhaps  for 
convenience  call  it,  Comnumal  marriage,  where  eve^y  nnm 
and  woman  in  a  small  community  were  regarded  as  equally 
married  to  one  another. 

Bachofen  considers  that  after  awhile  the  women,  shocked 
and  scandalised  by  such  a  state  of  things,  revolted  against 
it,  and  established  a  system  of  marriage  "with  female 
supremacy,  the  husband  being  subject  to  the  wife,  pro- 
perty and  descent  being  considered  to  go  in  the  female 
line,  and  women  enjoying  the  principal  share  of  political 
power.  The  first  period  he  calls  that  of  *  Hetairism ; ' 
the  second  of  '  Mutterrecht,  or  motherright.' 

In  the  third  stage  he  considers  that  the  ethereal  in- 
fluence of  the  father  prevailed  over  the  more  material  idea 
of  motherhood.  Men  claimed  preeminence,  property  and 
descent  were  traced  in  the  male  line,  sun  worship  super- 
seded moon  worship,  and  many  other  changes  in  social 
organisation  took  place, — mainly  because  it  came  to  be 
recognised  that  the  creative  influence  of  the  father  was  more 


Pole, 


'  Esprit  des  Lois,  vol.  ii.  p.  186. 
2  Loc.  cit.  p.  2{i9. 
'  Das  Mutterreclit.    . 


*  Primitive  Marriage, 

*  I/jid.  xviii.  xix. 


J. 


V 


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IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


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Sciences 
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23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  1 4580 

(716)  873-4503 


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G,S 


OUKilN    OP    MAKI!IA(;K. 


important  tliaii  ilio  inatorial  tie  of  iiiotlicrlioiMl.  Tlio  fatlior 
ill  fact  Avas  the  iiuthoi*  of  life,  tlio  mollior  a  iikto  inirso. 

Tliiip!,  ho  rof^anls  the  first  stjijj^o  as  lawless,  the  socoiid 
as  material,  the  third  as  spiritual.  I  believe,  however, 
that  communities  iu  whieh  women  have  exercised  the 
supreme  power  are  rare  and  exceptional,  if  indeed  they 
ever  existed  at  all.  We  do  not  find  in  history,  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  that  -women  do  assert  their  rit>-hts,  and  savaj^o 
women  would,  I  thinlc,  be  peculiarly  unlikely  to  uphold  their 
dij^nity  in  the  manner  supposed.  On  the  contrary,  anion |^ 
the  lowest  races  of  men,  as,  for  instance,  in  Anstralia,  the 
position  of  the  women  is  one  of  complete  subjection, 
and  it  seems  to  me  perfectly  clear  that  the  idea  of  niarria{]fc 
is  founded  on  the  rights,  not  of  the  woman,  but  of  the 
man,  beinj^  an  illustration  of 

the  pond  old  plan, 
Tliafc  lie  should  take  avIio  has  the  power, 
And  he  sl'ould  keep  who  can, 

Anionp^  low  races  the  wife  is  indeed  literally  the  pro- 
perty of  the  husband ;  as  Petruchio  says  of  Catherine  : 

T  will  bo  master  of  what  is  niino  own. 

She  is  my  pfoods,  my  chattels  ;  she  is  my  house, 

!My  household  stuff,  my  field,  my  barn, 

My  horse,  my  ox,  my  ass,  my  anything. 

So  thoroughly  is  this  the  case  that,  as  I  have  already 
mentioned  a  Roman's  'family'  originally,  and  indeed 
throughout  classical  times,  meant  his  slaves,  and  the  chil- 
dren only  formed  part  of  the  family  because  they  were  his 
slaves  ;  so  that  if  a  father  freed  his  son,  the  latter  ceased 
to  be  Oiie  of  the  liimily,  and  had  no  part  in  the  inherit- 
ance. Nay,  even  at  the  present  day,  in  some  parts  of 
Africa,  a  man's  property  goes,  not  to  his  children,  as  such, 
but  to  his  slaves. 


r.ACIIOFKN  S    VIEWS. 


GO 


$ 


'  pro- 


reacly 
iidcccl 
cliil- 
•e  liis 
cased 
lerit- 
•ts  of 
Isiich, 


ITciirnc  tells  us,  that  aiiioii«^  the  Ifudsoirs  J^iij  Indians 
*  it  has  ever  been  the  custom  fur  the  men  t)  wvstle  tor 
any  woman  to  whom  they  are  attached  ;  and,  of  course, 
the  stron<^est  party  always  carries  off  the  piize.  A  weak 
uian,  unless  he  bo  a  good  huuter  and  well  beloved,  is 
seldom  permitted  to  keep  a  wife  that  a  strong-er  man 
thinks  worth  his  notice.  .  .  .  This  custom  prevails 
throug-hout  all  tli«>ir  tribes,  and  causes  a  great  spirit  of 
emulation  among  their  youth,  who  are  upon  all  occasions, 
from  their  childhood,  trying  their  strength  and  skill  in 
wrestling.'  •  Franklin  also  says  that  the  Copper  Indians 
hold  women  in  the  same  low  estimation  as  the  Chipe- 
wyans  do, '  looking  upon  them  as  a  kind  of  property,  which 
the  stronger  may  take  from  the  weaker;  '^  and  Kicha;d 
son'*  '  more  than  once  saw  a  stronger  man  assert  his  rij^ht 
to  take  the  wife  of  a  weaker  countryman.  Anj-one  may 
challenge  another  to  wrestle,  and,  if  he  overcomes,  muy 
carry  off  the  wife  as  the  prize.'  Yet  the  women  never 
dream  of  protesting  against  this,  which,  indeed,  seems  to 
them  perfectly  natural.  The  theory  therefore  of  Dr. 
Bachofen,  and  the  sequence  of  social  customs  suggested  by 
him,  although  supported  w^tli  much  learning,  cannot,  I 
think,  be  regarded  as  correct.* 

M'Lennan,  like  Bachofen,  starts  with  a  staf^-e  of 
hetairism  or  communal  marriage.  The  next  stace  was, 
in  his  opinion,  that  form  of  polyandry  in  which  brothers 
had  their  wives  in  common  ;  afterwards  came  that  of  the 
Icv'iratc,  i.e.  the  system  under  which,  when  an  elder  brother 
died,  his  second  brother  married  the  widow,  and  so  on 
with  the  others  in  succession.  Thence  he  considers  that 
some   tribes   branched   off    into   endogamy,   others   into 


'  Hoarne,  p.  104. 

"^  Journey  to  the  Shores  of  the  Pular 
Seas,  vol.  viii.  p.  43. 


J. 


bou    lor     instiince 


Lew 


in  s 


Hill 


^  Kich.'irdson's  Boat  Journov,  vol.  ii.     .3,  9S,  101, 


Tracts  of  Chittagong,  pp.  47,  77,  80, 


f », 


>■ 


^i 


>  i  Ir 


r  :  w! 

'l: 


''J 


[( ; 


'lii 


IV 


\\ 


•0 


irLENNAN\S    VIEWS. 


exogamy  ; '  that  is  to  say,  some  forbade  marringe  out  of, 
others  ^vitliin,  the  tribe.  If  either  of  these  two  systems 
was  older  than  the  other,  he  considers  that  exogamy 
must  have  been  the  most  ancient.  Exogamy  was  based 
on  infanticide,'*  and  led  to  the  practice  of  man'iage  by 
capture.* 

In  a  further  stage  the  idea  of  female  descent,  producing 
as  it  would  a  division  in  the  tribe,  obviated  the  necessity 
of  capture  as  a  reality  and  reduced  it  to  a  s^'mbol. 

In  support  of  this  view  Mr.  M'Lennan  has  certainly 
brought  forward  many  striking  facts ;  but,  while  admitting 
that  it  probably  represents  the  succession  of  events  in 
some  cases,  I  cannot  but  think  that  these  are  excei^tional. 
Fully  admitting  the  prevalence  of  infanticide  among 
savages,  it  will,  I  think,  be  found  that  among  the  lowest 
races,  boys  were  killed  as  frequently  as  girls.  Eyre  ex- 
pressly states  that  this  was  the  case  in  Australia.*  In 
fact  the  distinction  between  the  sexes  implies  an  amount 
of  forethought,  and  prudence,  which  the  lower  races  of 
men  do  not  possess. 

For  reasons  to  be  given  shortly,  I  believe  that  com- 
munal marriage  was  gradually  superseded  by  individual 
marriage  founded  on  capture,  and  that  this  led  firstly  to 
exogamy  and  then  to  female  infanticide ;  thus  reversing 
M'Lennan's  order  of  sequence.  Endogamy  and  regulated 
polyandry,  though  frequent,  I  regard  as  exceptional,  and 
as  not  entering  into  the  normal  progress  of  development. 

Like  M'Lennan  and  Bachofen,  I  believe  that  our  present 
social  relations  have  arisen  from  an  initial  stage  of 
hetairism  or  communal  marriage.  It  is  obvious,  how- 
ever, that  even  under  communal  marriage,  a  warrior  who 
had  captured  a  beautiful  girl  in  some  marauding  expe- 


'  Lnc.  cif.  p.  T  45. 
»  Loc  cif.  p.  138. 


»  Loc.  cif.  p.  110. 

*  ULscoverics,  &c.,  vol.  ii.  p.  324. 


THE    TRUE    EXPLANATION. 


71 


(lition  would  (Ijihii  a  peculiar  riglit  to  lior,  and,  when 
possible,  ■would  set  custom  at  defiance.  AVe  have  already 
seen  that  there  are  other  cases  of  the  existence  of  niiirria<re 
under  two  forms  side  by  side  in  one  country ;  and  there 
is,  therefore,  no  real  diiliculty  in  assuming  the  co-existenco 
of  communal  and  individual  marriaj^e.  It  is  true  that 
under  a  communal  marriage  system  no  man  could  np- 
propriatc  a  girl  entirely  to  himself  without  infringing  the 
rights  of  the  whole  tribe.  Such  an  act  would  naturally 
be  looked  on  with  jealousy,  and  only  regarded  as  justifiable 
under  peculiar  circumstances.  A  war-captive,  however, 
was  in  a  peculiar  position  :  the  tribe  had  no  right  to  her ; 
her  capturer  might  have  killed  her  if  he  chose ;  if  ho  pre- 
ferred to  keep  her  alive  he  was  at  liberty  to  do  so ;  ho 
did  as  he  liked,  and  the  tribe  was  no  sufferer. 

M'Lennan,*  indeed,  says  that  *  it  is  impossible  to  believe 
that  the  mere  lawlessness  of  savages  should  be  consecrated 
into  a  legal  symbol,  or  to  assign  a  reason — could  this  be 
believed — why  a  similar  symbol  should  not  appear  in 
transferences  of  other  kinds  of  property.'  The  symbol  of 
capture,  however,  was  not  one  of  lawlessness,  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  of — according  to  the  ideas  of  the  time — lawful 
possession.  It  did  not  refer  to  those  from  whom  the 
captive  w^as  taken,  ^ut  was  intended  to  bar  the  rights  of 
the  tribe  into  which  she  was  introduced.  Individual 
marriage  was,  in  fact,  an  infringement  of  cojnmunal 
rights;  the  man  retaining  to  himself,  or  the  man  and 
woman  mutually  appropriating  to  one  another,  that  which 
should  have  belonged  to  the  whole  tribe.  Thus,  among 
the  Andamaners,  any  woman  who  at,'  empted  to  resist  the 
marital  privileges  claimed  by  any  member  of  the  tribe  was 
liable  to  severe  punishment.'* 

Nor  is  it,  I  think,  difficult  to  understand  why  the  symbol 


■■  «i 


f 


324. 


'  Loc.  cit.  p.  44. 


*  Sec  Trans,  Etlin.  Soc.  N.  S.  vol.  ii.  p.  35. 


73  ORIGIN    or    MARRIAGE    DV    CAPTlMMl. 

of  caplnro  docs  not  nppcar  in  transrercnco.s  of  otlior  kiiid.-^ 
of  property.  Every  ^feneration  requires  fresh  Avives ;  the 
actual  capture,  or  at  any  rate  the  symbol,  needed  there- 
fore repetition.  This,  however,  does  not  apply  to  land ; 
when  once  the  idea  of  landed  property  arose,  the  same 
land  descended  from  owner  to  owner.  In  other  kinds  of 
property  again,  there  is  an  important,  thou^jh  different 
kind  of,  distinction.  A  man  made  his  own  bow  and  arrows, 
his  own  hut,  his  own  arms ;  hence  the  necessity  of  capture 
did  not  exist,  and  the  symbol  would  not  arise. 

M'Lennan  supposes  that  savages  were  driven  by  female 
infanticide,  and  the  consequent  absence  or  paucity  of 
women,  into  exogamy  and  marriage  by  capture.  I  shall 
presently  give  my  reasons  for  rejecting  this  explanation. 

He  also  considers  that  marriage  by  capture  followed, 
and  .arose  from,  that  remarkable  custom,  namel}',  of  marry- 
ing always  out  of  the  tribe,  for  which  he  has  proposed  the 
appropriate  name  of  exogamy.  On  the  contrary,  I  believe 
that  exogamy  arose  from  marriage  by  capture,  not  marriage 
by  capture  from  exogamy  :  that  capture,  and  capture  alone, 
could  give  a  man  the  right  to  monopolise  a  woman,'  to  the 
exclusion  of  his  fellow-clansmen ;  and  that  hence,  even 
after  all  necessity  for  actual  capture  had  long  ceased,  the 
symbol  remained;  capture  having,  by  long  habit,  come 
to  be  received  as  a  necessary  preliminary  to  marriage. 

That  niftrriage  by  capture  has  not  arisen  from  female 
modesty  is,  I  think,  evident,  not  only  because  we  have  no 
reason  to  suppose  that  such  a  feeling  prevails  specially 
among  the  lower  races  of  man,  but  also,  firstly,  because 
it  cannot  explain  the  mock  resistance  of  the  relatives,  and 
secondly,  because  the  very  question  to  be  solved  is  why  it 
has  become  so  generally  the  custom  to  win  the  female 
not  by  persuasion  but  by  force. 

M'Lennan's  view  throws  no    liijht  on  the  rLmar':able 


;n 


rUEVALENCE    OP    MARRIAGE    BY    CATTrilE 


73 


s;  llio 
there- 
land  ; 
3  same 
nds  of 
fferent 
irrows, 
lapturc 

female 
city  of 
I  shall 
Ltion. 
llowed, 
marry- 
sed  the 
believe 
arriagc 
alone, 
;  to  the 
even 
led,  the 
come 

JO. 

I  female 
lave  no 
)ecially 
)ecause 
iS,  and 
I  why  it 
I  female 

r'able 


ceremonies  of  expiation  fur  marriage,  to  which  I  shall 
presently  call  attention. 

I  will,  however,  first  proceed  to  show  how  widely  *  cap- 
ture,' cither  actual  or  symbolical,  enters  into  tho  idea  of 
marriajT^e.  Mr.  M'Lennan  was,  I  believe,  the  first  to 
appreciate  its  importance.  I  have  taken  some  of  tho 
foUowiui^  evidence  from  his  valuable  work,  adding",  how- 
ever, several  additional  cases. 

It  requires  strong  evidence,  which,  indeed,  exists  in 
abundance,  to  satisfy  us  that  the  origin  of  marriage  is 
independent  of  all  sacred  and  social  considerations ;  that 
it  had  nothing  to  do  v.'ilh  mutual  affection  or  consent ; 
that  it  was  invalidated  by  any  aj^pearance  of  consent ; 
and  t  hat  it  is  tube  symbolised  not  by  any  demonstration 
of  warm  aftection  on  tho  one  side,  and  tender  devotion  on 
the  other,  but  by  brutal  violence  and  unwilling  submission. 

Yet,  as  already  mentioned,  the  evidence  is  overwhelm- 
ing. So  completely  did  the  Caribs  supply  themselves  with 
wives  from  the  neighbouring  races,  and  so  little  communi- 
cation did  they  hold  with  them,  that  the  men  and  women 
actually  spoke  different  languages.  So  again  in  Australia 
(PI.  III.)  the  men,  says  Oldtield,  *  are  in  excess  of  the  other 
sex,  and,  consequently,  many  men  of  every  tribe  are  unpro- 
vided with  that  especial  necessary  to  their  comfortable 
subsistence,  a  wife ;  who  is  a  slave  in  the  strictest  sense 
of  the  word,  being  a  beast  of  burden,  a  provider  of  food, 
and  a  ready  object  on  which  to  vent  those  passior.s  that 
the  men  do  not  dare  to  vent  on  each  other.  Hence,  for 
those  coveting  such  a  luxury,  arises  the  necessity  of  steal- 
ing the  women  of  some  other  tribe  ;  and,  in  their  expedi- 
tions to  effect  so  laudable  a. design,  they  will  cheerfully 
undergo  privations  and  dangers  equal  to  those  they  incur 
when  in  search  of  l^lood-revenge.  When,  on  such  an 
errand,  tli(>y  discover  an  unprotected  female,  their  pro- 


i;i 


74 


OUKilNALLY    A    KEALITY. 


coeJinj^'s  are  not  of  tlio  most  pontic  imtiirc.  .Stiiiiiiiii;^ 
lior  by  II  blow  froin  the  dowjik  (to  make  her  love  them, 
perhaps),  they  drag  her  by  the  hair  to  the  nearest  thicket 


to  await  he] 


When  she 


to  h 


recovery,  vviien  sue  comes 
they  force  her  to  accompany  them ;  and  as  at  worst  it  is 
bnt  the  exchange  of  one  brutal  lord  for  another,  she  gene- 
rally enters  into  the  spirit  of  the  affair,  and  takes  as  much 
l)ains  to  escape  as  though  it  were  a  matter  of  her  own  free 
choice.' ' 

The  following  is  the  manner  in  which  the  natives  about 
Sydney  used  to  procure  wives : — *  The  i^oor  wretch  is 
stolen  upon  in  the  absence  of  her  protectors.  Being  first 
stupified  with  blows,  inflicted  with  clubs  or  wooden  swords, 
on  the  head,  back,  and  shoulders,  every  one  of  which  is 
followed  by  a  stream  of  blood,  she  is  then  dragged  through 
the  woods  by  one  arm,  with  a  perseverance  and  violence 
that  it  might  be  su23posed  would  disj^lace  it  from  its  socket. 
The  lover,  or  rather  the  ravisher,  is  regardless  of  the  stones 
or  broken  pieces  of  trees  which  may  lie  in  his  route,  being 
anxious  only  to  convey  his  prize  in  safety  to  his  own  party, 
when  a  scene  ensues  too  shocking  to  relate.  This  outrage 
is  not  resented  by  the  relations  of  the  female,  who  only 
retaliate  by  a  similar  outrage  when  they  find  an  oppor- 
tunity. This  is  so  constantly  the  practice  among  them 
that  even  the  children  make  it  a  play-game  or  exercise.' ' 

In  Bali,^  one  of  the  islands  between  Java  and  New 
Guinea,  also  it  is  stated  to  be  the  practice  that  girls  are 
*  stolen  away  by  their  brutal  lovers,  who  sometimes  sur- 
prise them  alone,  or  overpower  them  by  the  way,  and 
carry  them  off  with  dishevelled  hair  and  tattered  gar- 
ments to  the  woods.  When  brought  back  from  thence, 
and  reconciliation  is  tlTected  with  enraged  friends,  the 


'  Trans.  Ethn.  Soc.  vol.  iii.  p.  2:)0. 
'  Collins's  English  Colony  in  New 
South  Welles,  p.  362. 


'  Notices  of  the  Indian  Archipclng(\ 
p.  90. 


m 


tlu'iii, 
hickct 
senses 
st  it  is 
I  gcne- 

i  IDUcll 

vn  free 

5  iiln)ut 
}tch    is 
11 IX  first 
jwords, 
hicli  is 
liroiigh 
iolenco 
socket. 
I  stones 
,  being 
L  party, 
outrage 
10  only 
oppor- 
cr  them 
cise.' ' 
d  New 
iris  are 
es  sur- 
ly, and 
id  gar- 
thence, 
ds,  tlie 

cliipi'liiga 


o 

» 

o 

H 

o 
< 

M 

a 

< 


o 
n 
< 

< 

M 

00 


)  I 


t' 


f 


1«l 


( 


c 


KDnSEQrKNTIiY    A    FORM. 


(•> 


l»()oi'  fomiilo  becomes  tlio  slave  of  licr  roii^li  luV(»r,  In-  u 
eertiiiii  coinponsiition-price  b('iii|:]f  paid  to  her  relatives.' 

So  deeply  rooted  is  the  feeliiiy;  of  a  connect  ion  between 
force  and  niarriaj^e,  that  we  find  tiie  former  used  as  ii 
form  lon«:^  after  all  necessity  for  it  had  ceased  ;  and  it  is 
very  interesting  to  trace,  as  Mr.  M'Lennan  has  done,  the 
gradual  stages  through  which  a  stern  reality  softens 
down  into  a  mere  symbol. 

It  is  easy  to  see  that  if  we  assnme  the  case  of  a  coun- 
try in  which  there  are  four  certain  neighbouring  tribe^i, 
who  have  the  custom  of  exogamy,  and  who  trace  pedi- 
grees through  the  mother,  and  not  through  the  father — 
a  custom  which,  as  we  shall  presently  see,  is  so  common 
that  it  may  be  said  to  be  the  usual  one  among  the  lower 
races — aftei  a  certain  time  the  result  rvould  be  that  each 
tribe  would  consist  of  four  septs  or  clans,  representing 
the  four  original  tribes,  and  hence  we  should  find  com- 
munities in  which  each  tribe  is  divided  into  clans,  and  a 
man  must  always  marry  a  woman  of  a  different  clan.  But 
as  communities  become  larger  and  more  civilised,  the 
actual  *  capture '  became  inconvenient,  and  at  last  im- 
possible. 

Gradually  therefore  it  came  to  be  more  and  more  a  mock 
ceremony,  forming,  however,  a  necessary  part  of  the 
marriage  ceremony.     Of  this  many  cases  might  be  given. 

Speaking  of  the  Khonds  of  Orissa,  -Major-General 
Campbell  says  that  on  one  occasion  he  *  heard  loud  cries 
proceeding  from  a  village  close  at  hand ;  fearing  some 
quarrel,  I  rode  to  the  spot,  and  there  I  saw  a  man  bear- 
ing away  upon  his  back  something  enveloped  in  an  ample 
covering  of  scarlet  cloth ;  he  was  surrounded  by  twenty 
or  thirty  young  fellows,  and  by  them  protected  from  the 
desperate  attacks  made  upon  him  by  a  party  of  young 
women.     On  seeking  an  explanation  of  this  novel  scene, 


I 


i^i 


1 


,j 


i    i! 


'0 


iiindosta:: — Malay  rKxixsi'LAi 


1  was  told  Unit  tlio  man  had  just  Im'cii  married,  and  Ids 
]>n'ci()us  burden  was  his  bloomiu<jf  bride,  whom  ho  was 
(■()nv('}in<if  to  his  own  vina|^«\  Her  youthful  friends  (as 
it  ai)p(Mrs  is  the  custom)  were  scclviM;^  to  refrain  posses- 
sion of  her,  and  liurled  stones  and  bandjoos  at  tlie  liead  of 
the  devoted  bride<^room,  until  he  reached  the  confines  of 
liis  own  villaj^o.'  ' 

Sir  W.  Elliot  also  mentions  that  not  only  amon|jfst  the 
Khonds,  but  also  in  *  several  other  tribes  of  Central  India, 


the  brid 


his  bride  bv  for 


no  brule«j^room  seizes  lus  bride  by  iorce,  either  alfected  or 
n^al ; ' '  and  the  same  was  customary  among  the  liadagas 
of  the  Neilgherry  II  ills.* 

Dalton  mentions  that  amonf^  the  Kols  of  Central  India, 
when  tho  price  of  a  girl  has  boon  arranged,  *  the  bride- 
groom and  a  largo  party  of  his  friends  of  both  sexes  enter 
with  much  singing  and  dancing,  and  i<ham  fnjhtiun  ^"  ^^^^ 
village  of  tho  bride,  where  they  meet  the  bride's  party, 
and  arc  hospitably  entertained.  '  ^ 

M.  Bourien  **  thus  describes  tho  marriage  ceremony 
among  the  wild  tribes  of  tho  Malay  Peninsula  : — '  When 
all  are  assembled,  and  all  ready,  the  brido  and  bride- 
groom are  led  by  one  of  the  old  men  of  tho  tribe,  towards 
a  circle  more  or  less  great,  according  to  tho  presumed 
strength  of  the  intended  pair ;  tho  girl  runs  round  first, 
and  the  young  man  pursues  a  short  distance  behind ;  if 
he  succeed  in  reaching  her  and  retaining  her,  she  becomes 
his  wife ;  if  not,  he  loses  all  claim  to  her.  At  other 
times,  a  larger  field  is  appointed  for  the  trial,  and  they 
pursue  one  another  in  the  forest.  The  race,  according 
to  the  words  of  the  chronicle,  "  is  not  to  tho  swift  nor 

'  Quoted  in  M'Lonnan's  rnmilivo  Tniots  of  Cliittagfoiig,  p.  30,  80. 

Mnrviago,  p.  28.  *  Tians.  Kthn.  Soc.  vol.  vi.    p.  21. 

«  Trans.  Kthn.  Poc.  lSf.9,  p.  \2r^.  Sop  also  p.  27,  and  tho  Tribes  of  1ml iii, 

'  ]\li>tz.   The  tribes  of  the  Ni'il^licr-  yi'l.  i.  p.  lo. 

ries,   p.  74.      fc'co   also  Lcwin's   Jiill  *  Trans.  Etiin.  Soc.  ISGo,  p.  81. 


KAI.MrCKS — TUNG  i:.SKS  —  KAMClIA  DAI. i;s. 


77 


i 


iiitl  lii^ 
ho  Wiis 
luls   (lis 

pOHSl'S- 

licad  of 
I  linos  of 

trat  the 
.1  Iiidiii, 
ected  or 
[Jiuliij^MS 

il  Tiidia, 
c  bride- 
:es  enter 
tij  in  the 
's  party, 

roniony 
When 
bridc- 
;owards 
esiimcd 
ul  first, 
lind;  if 
becomes 
t  other 
md  tliey 
3Cording 
kvift  nor 

80. 
vi.    p.  21. 

:a  uf  liuliii, 

,p.  81. 


the  battle  lo  Ihe  stron;.,',"   but    to  tiif   yonn;jf  nini    '.vho 
has  had  the  *^(uu\  fdrtuiie  to  please'  the  intende»l  bridf.' 

Anion;,'  the  ICahnnelcs,  l)r.  Hell  t«'lls  ns  that  after  the 
price  of  the  ^'irl  has  been  duly  aj^'reed  on,  when  the  britle- 
{,'rooni  eonies  with  his  friends  to  carry  oil*  liis  bride,  *a 
sham  resistance  is  always  njade  by  th«»  i)eople  (if  her 
camp,  in  spite  of  which  she  fails  not  to  be  borne  away  on 
a  ricldy  caparisoned  horse,  with  loud  shouts  and  feu  do 
joie.  » 

Dr.  Clarice'  ^'ives  a  charniin;j^ly  romantic  account  of  the 
ceremony.  'The  ^irl,'  he  says  'is  lirst  mounted,  who 
rides  oil  in  full  spet'd.  Her  lover  pursnes;  if  he  overtakes 
her,  she  becomes  his  wife,  and  the  marriafj^e  is  consum- 
nnited  on  the  spot;  after  this  she  retnrns  with  him  to  his 
tent.  But  it  sometimes  happens  that  the  woman  does 
not  wish  to  marry  the  person  by  whom  she  is  pnrsned  ; 
in  this  case,  she  will  not  sntfer  him  to  overtaken  her.  We 
were  assnred  that  no  instance  occurs  of  a  Kahnuek  j^'irl 
beinij  thus  can<4'ht,  unless  she  liave  a  i)artiality  to  the  pur- 
sued. If  she  dislikes  him,  she  rides,  to  use  the  hin;4-ua;L,''0 
of  En;j^lish  sportsmen,  "neck  or  nouj^dit,  "  until  she  has 
completely  elFected  her  escape,  or  until  her  pursuer's  horse 
becomes  exhausted,  leaving  her  at  liberty  to  return,  and 
to  be  afterwards  chased  by  some  more  favoured  admirer.' 

*  Among  the  Tunguses  and  Kamchadales,'  says  Ernan,-'' 
*  a  matrimonial  engagement  is  not  definitively  arranged 
and  concluded  until  the  suitor  has  got  the  better  of  his 
beloved  by  force,  and  l.as  torn  her  clothes.'  Attacks  on 
women  arc  not  allowed  to  be  avenged  by  blood,  unless 
they  take  place  within  the  yourt  or  house.  The  man  is 
not  regarded  as  to  blame,  if  the  woman  '  has  ventured  to 


'  M'Lennan's    Primitive  Marriage,         '  Travels  in  Siberia,  vol.  ii.  p.  442. 
P-  '"0.  Sco  iilsu  Kami's'  History  uf  Man,  vol. 

"  Travels,  vol.  i.  p.  332.  ii.  p.  ,J8. 


% 


r,jj 


II 


rd 


Hi  i 


\\wmi\ 


I'i 


78 


MONGOLS  —  ESQUIMAUX. 


leave  lier  natural  place,  the  sacred  and  jirotecting  lieartli.' 
Pallas  observes  that  in  his  time,  marriage  by  ca^jture 
prevailed  also  among  the  Samoyedes.' 

Among  the  Mongols'  when  a  marriage  is  arranged, 
the  girl  *  flies  to  some  relations  to  hide  herself.  The 
bridegroom  coming  to  demand  his  -wife,  the  father-in-law 
says,  "  My  daughter  is  yours  ;  go,  take  her  wherever  you 
can  find  her."  Having  thus  obtained  his  warrant,  he, 
with  his  friends,  runs  about  searching ;  and  having  found 
her,  seizes  her  as  his  property,  and  carries  her  home  as  it 
were  by  force. 

In  the  Korea  when  a  man  marries,  he  mounts  on 
horseback,  attended  by  his  friends,  and,  having  ridden 
about  the  town,  stops  at  the  bride's  door,  wiiero  he  is 
received  by  her  relations,  who  then  carry  her  to  his  house, 
and  the  ceremony  is  complete.'  ^ 

Among  the  Esquimaux  of  Cape  York  (Smith  Sound) 
according  to  Dr.  Hayes,'*  there  is  no  marriage  ceremony 
further  than  that  the  boy  is  required  to  carry  off  his 
bride  by  main  force ;  for,  even  aniong  these  blubber-eating 
people,  the  woman  only  saves  her  modesty  by  a  sham 
resistance,  although  she  knows  years  beforehand  €*ufc 
her  destiny  is  sealed,  and  that  she  is  to  become  the  wife 
of  the  man  from  whose  embraces,  when  the  nuptial  day 
comes,  she  is  obliged  by  the  inexorable  law  of  public 
opinion  to  free  herself  if  possible,  by  kicking  and  scream- 
ing with  might  and  main,  until  she  is  safely  landed  in 
the  hut  of  her  future  lord,  when  she  gives  up  the  combat 
very  cheerfully  and  takes  possession  of  her  new  abode. 

In  Greenland,  according  to  Egede,  *  when  a  young  man 
likes  a  maiden  he  commonly  proposes  it  to  their  parents 


'  Vol.  iv.  p.  97.    See  also  Astky's 
Collection  ofVoyages,  A'ol.  iv.  p,  57f). 
*  Astle}',  vol.  iv.  p.  77. 


3  Ihid.  p.  342. 

*  Opeu  Polar  Sea,  p.  A?,2. 


SOUTH    AMERICANS—  FIJIANS. 


70 


and  relations  on  both  sides ;  and  after  he  has  ohtair.ed 
their  consent,,  he  gets  two  or  more  old  women  to  fetch  tin 
bride  (and  if  he  is  a  stout  fellow  he  will  fetch  her  himself). 
They  go  to  the  place  where  the  young  woman  is,  and  carry 
her  away  by  force.' ' 

We  have  already  seen  (p.  60)  that  marriage  by  capture 
exists  in  full  force  among  the  Northern  Redskins. 

The  aborigines  of  the  Amazon  Valley,  says  Wallace,' 
*  have  no  particular  ceremony  at  their  marriages,  except 
that  of  always  carrying  away  the  girl  by  force,  or  making 
a  show  of  doing  so,  even  when  she  and  her  parents  are 
quite  willing.' 

M.  Bardel,  in  the  notes  to  D'Urville's  Voyage,  mentions 
that  among  the  Indians  round  Conception  in  South 
America,  after  a  man  has  agreed  on  the  price  of  a  girl 
with  her  parents,  he  surj)rises  her,  and  carries  her  off  to 
the  woods  for  a  few  days,  after  which  the  haj)py  couple 
return  liome.^ 

In  Tierra  del  Fuego,  as  Admiral  Fitzroy  tells  us,'*  as 
soon  *  as  a  youth  is  able  to  maint'^m  a  wife  by  his  exer- 
tions in  fishing  or  birdcatching,  he  obtains  the  con- 
sent of  her  relations,  and  ....  having  built  or  stolen 
a  canoe  for  himself,  he  watches  for  an  opportunity,  and 
carries  off  his  bride.  If  she  is  unwilling  she  hides  her- 
self in  the  woods  until  her  admirar  is  heartily  tired  of 
looking  for  her,  and  gives  up  the  pursuit,  but  this  seldom 
happens.' 

Williamc  mentions,  as  prevailing  among  the  Fijians, 
the  custom  *  of  seizing  upon  a  woman  by  apparent  or 
actual  force,  in  order  to  make  her  a  wife.  On  reaching 
the  home  of  her  abductor,  should  she  not  approve  of  the 


'  History  of  Groeiiland,  p.  113.  *  Voy.ape   of    tho    Ailvcnture    and 

*  Travels  in  the  AniMzoiis,  p.  497.         Beagle,  vol.  ii.  p.  182. 


"  Vol.  iii.  p.  277,  and  22. 


1     ;i: 


80 


POLYNESIANS. 


J  •* 


V,^! 


i  Si       ' 
I 


matcli,  she  runs  to  some  one  who  can  protect  her ;  if,  how- 
ever, she  is  satisfied,  the  matter  is  settled  forthwith ;  a 
feast  is  given  to  her  friends  tlie  next  morning,  and  the 
couple  are  thenceforward  considered  as  man  and  wife.' ' 

Earle'*  gives  the  following  account  of  marriage  in  New 
Zealand,  which  he  regards  as  '  most  extraordinary,'  while  in 
reality  it  is,  as  we  now  see,  nothing  of  the  sort :  *  The  New 
Zealand  method  of  courtship  and  matrimony  is,'  he  says, 
*  most  extraordinary ;  so  much  so  that  an  observer  could 
never  imagine  any  affection  existed  between  the  parties. 
A  man  sees  a  woman  whom  he  fancies  he  should  like  for  a 
wdfe ;  he  asks  the  consent  of  her  father,  or,  if  an  orphan, 
of  her  nearest  relation ;  which,  if  ho  obtains,  he  carries 
his  "  intended  "  off  by  force,  she  resisting  with  all  her 
strength;  and,  as  the  New  Zealand  girls  are  generally 
pretty  robust,  sometimes  a  dreadful  struggle  takes  place  ; 
both  are  soon  stripped  to  the  skin ;  and  it  is  sometimes 
the  work  of  hours  to  remove  the  fair  prize  a  hundred  yards. 
If  she  breaks  away  she  instantly  flies  from  her  antagonist, 
and  he  has  his  labour  to  commence  again.  We  may  sup- 
pose that  if  the  lady  feels  any  wish  to  be  united  to  her 
would-be  spouse  she  will  not  n^ake  too  violent  an  opposi- 
tion ;  but  it  sometimes  happens  that  she  secures  her  re- 
treat into  her  father's  house,  and  the  lover  loses  all  chance 
of  ever  obtaining  her;  whereas,  if  he  can  manage  to  carry 
her  in  rriumph  into  his  rwn,  she  immediacely  becomes  his 
wife.' 

Even  after  a  marriage,  it  is  customary  in  NTew  Zealand  to 
have  a  mock  scuffle.  Mr.  Yate  ^  gives  a  good  illustration. 
There  was,  he  saj's,  '  a  little  opposition  to  the  wedding, 
but  not  till  it  w\as  over,  as  is  always  the  custom  here. 
The  bride's  mother  came  to  me  the  preceding  afternoon, 


•  Fiji  and  the  Fijinns,  vol.  i.  p.  174. 

•  Ki'sidi'UL'o  ill  New  Zciilaiicl,  p.  'Jil. 


'  Yiito's  Now  Zo:il;ina,  p.   96. 


I 


POLYNESIANS. 


81 


,  if,  liow- 
iwitli;  a 
,  and  llic 
wife.' ' 
e  in  INew 
,'  wliile  in 
The  New 
'  he  says, 
'ver  could 
le  x^Ji-i'ties. 
like  for  a 
.n  orphan, 
he  carries 
Ih  all  her 
generally 
,kes  place ; 
sometimes 
Ired  yards, 
antagonist, 
may  snp- 
ted  to  her 
an  opposi- 
cs  her  re- 
all  chance 
^e  to  carry 
ecomes  his 

Zealand  to 
llustration. 
e  wedding, 
stom  here, 
afternoon, 

I,  p.  96. 


and  said  she  was  well  pleased  in  her  heart  that  her  daughter 
was  ffoiiii;  to  be  married  to  Pahau;  hut  tliat  she  must  bo 
angry  about  it  with  her  mouth  in  tl   '  presence  of  her 
tribe,  lest  the  natives  should  come  and  take  away  all  her 
possessions,  and  destroy  her  crops.     This  is  customary  on 
all  occasions.     If  a  chief  meets  with  an  accident  he  is 
stripped,  as  a  mark  of  respect ;  if  he  marries  a  wife  he  has 
to  lose  all  his  property  ;  and  this  is  done  out  of  respect — 
not  from  disrespect,  as  it  was  once  printed,  inadvertently, 
iij   an  official  publication.     A  chief  would  think  himself 
slighted  if  his  food  and  garments  were  not  taken  away 
from  him  upon  many  occasions.     To  prevent  this  Manga, 
the  old  mother,  acted  with  policy.     As  I  was  returning, 
therefore,  from  the  church  with  the  bridegroom  and  bride, 
she  met  the  procession  and  began  to  assail  us  all  furiously. 
She  put  on  a  most  terrific  countenance,  threw  her  garments 
about,  and  tore  her  hair  like  a  fury ;  then  said  to  me,  '  Ah, 
you  white  m'ssionary,  yr>u  are  worse  than  the  devil :  you 
first  make  a  slave-lad  your  son  by  redeeming  him  from  his 
master,  and  then  marry  him  to  my  daughter,  who  is  a 
lady.     I  will  tear  your  eyes  out !  I  will  tear  your  eyes 
out !  "     The  old  woman,  suiting  the  action  to  the  word, 
feigned  a  scratch  at  my  face,  at  the  same  time  saying  in 
an  under  tone  that  it  was  "  all  mouth"  and  that  she  did 
not. mean  what  she  said.     I  told  her  I  should  stop  her 
mouth   with   a   blanket.     "  Ha,   ha,   ha  !  "   she  replied  ; 
"  that  was  all  I  wanted  :  I  only  wanted  to  get  a  blanket, 
and  therefore  I  made  this  noise."     The  whole  affair  went 
off  after  this  remarkably  well :  all  seemed  to  enjoy  them- 
selves ;  and  everyone  was  satisfied.'     It  is  evident,  how- 
ever, that  Yate  did  not  thoroughly  understand  the  meaning 
of  the  scene. 

Among  the  Ahitas  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  when  a 
man  wishes  to  muvvy  a  girl^  her  parents  send  her  before 

6 


m   , 


82 


MARRIAGE    BY    CAPTURE    AMONG    THE    NEGliOES, 


^'ill 


sunrise  into  the  Avoods.  She  has  an  liour's  start,  after 
which  the  lover  goes  to  seek  her.  If  he  finds  her  and 
hrings  her  back  before  sunset,  the  marriage  is  acknow- 
ledged ;  if  not,  he  must  abandon  all  claim  to  her. 

In  the  West  African  kingdom  of  Futa,'  after  all  other 
preliminaries  are  arranged,  *  one  difficnltj  yet  remains, 
viz.,  how  the  young  man  shall  get  his  wife  home  ;  for  the 
women-cousins  and  relations  take  on  mightily,  and  gnard 
the  door  of  the  house  to  prevent  her  being  carried  away. 
At  last,  by  the  bridegroom's  presents  and  generosity,  their 
grief  is  assuaged.  He  then  provides  a  friend,  well-mounted, 
to  carry  her  off;  but  as  soon  as  she  is  on  horseback  the 
women  renew  their  lamentations,  and  rush  in  to  dismount 
her.  Tlowever,  the  man  is  generally  successful,  and  rides 
off  with  his  prize  to  the  house  prepared  for  her.' 

Gray  mentions  that  a  Mandingo  (West  Africa)  wishing 
to  marry  a  young  girl  at  Kayaye,  applied  to  her  mother, 
wdio  *  consented  to  his  obtaining  her  in  any  wlv  he  could. 
Accordingly,  when  the  poor  girl  was  employed  preparing 
some  rice  for  supper,  she  was  seized  by  her  intended 
husband,  assisted  by  three  or  four  of  his  companions, 
and  carried  off  by  force.  She  made  much  resistance,  by 
biting,  scratching  kicking,  and  roaring  most  bitterly. 
Many,  both  men  and  women,  some  of  them  her  own  rela- 
tions, who  witnessed  the  affair,  only  laughed  at  the  farce, 
and  consoled  her  by  saying  that  she  would  soon  be  recon- 
ciled to  her  situation.'  Evidently  therefore  this  was  not, 
as  Gray  seems  to  have  supposed,  a  mere  act  of  lawless 
violence,  but  a  recognised  custom,  which  called  for  no 
interference  on  the  part  of  spectators. 

Denham/    describing    a  marriage    at   Sockna    (Nortli 

•  Astley's    CuUcctioo    of    Voyages,     p.  56. 
vol.  ii.  p.  240.  »  Loe.  cit.  vol.  i.  p.  39. 

?  Gray's  Travels  in  "Westerly  Africa, 


i 

3  > 


$ 


:t,  after 
her  and 
icknow- 

i\\  other 
remains, 
;  for  the 
id  guard 
ed  away. 
iity,  their 
mounted, 
back  the 
dismount 
and  rides 

,)  wishing 

T  mother, 

he  could. 


pveparmg 
intended 

tnpanions, 
tance,  by 
bitterly, 
own  rela- 
the  farce, 
be  recon- 
was  not, 
of  lawless 
ed  for  no 


I 


la 


(Nortli 


IN    CIRCASSIA,    AND    IN    EUROPE. 


8;J 


Africa),  says  that  the  bride  is  taken  on  a  camel  to  the 
bridegroom's  house,  *  upon  which  it  is  necessary  for  her  to 
appear  greatly  surprised,  and  refuse  to  dismount ;  the 
women  scream,  the  men  shout,  and  she  is  at  length  per- 
suaded to  enter.' 

In  Circassia  weddings  are  accomi^anied  by  a  feast,  *  in 
the  midst  of  which  the  bridegroom  has  to  rush  in,  and, 
with  the  help  of  a  few  daring  young  men,  carry  off  the 
lady  by  force  ;  and  by  this  process  she  becomes  the  lawful 
wife.' '  According  to  Spencer,  another  important  part  of 
the  ceremony  consists  in  the  bridegroom  drawing  his 
dagger  and  cutting  open  the  bride's  corset. 

As  regards  Europe,  Plutarch'*  tells  us  that  in  Sparta 
the  bridegroom  usually  carried  off  his  bride  by  force, 
evidently,  however,  of  a  friendly  character.  The  Ro- 
mans, also,  had  a  very  similar  custom.  In  North  Fries- 
land,  '  a  young  fellow  called  the  bride-lifter  lifts  the  bride 
and  her  two  bridesmaids  upon  the  waggon  in  which  the 
married  coui^le  are  to  travel  to  their  home.' '  M'Lennan 
states  that  in  some  parts  of  France,  down  to  the  seventeenth 
century,  it  was  customary  for  the  bride  to  feign  reluctance 
to  enter  the  bridegroom's  house. 

In  Poland,  Lithuania,  Russia,  and  parts  of  Prussia, 
according  to  Seignior  Gaya,''  young  men  used  to  carry  off 
their  sweethearts  by  force,  and  then  apply  to  the  j)arents 
for  their  consent. 

Lord  Kames,^  in  his  '  Sketches  of  the  History  of  Man,' 
mentions  that  the  following  marriage  ceremony  was,  in 
his  day,  or  at  least  had  till  shortly  before,  been  customary 
among  the  Welsh  : — '  On  the  morning  of  the  wedding-day 
the  bridegroom,  accompanied  with  his  friends  on  horse- 


'  M(jser,  Tlio  CaucaKus  and  its 
People,  p.  31  ;  quoted  by  SI'Lennan, 
luc.  cit.  p.  36. 

*  See  also  Herodotus,  vi.  65. 


'  M'Lonnan,  he.  cit.  p.  33. 

*  MaiTiajre  Ceromoiiii'S,  p.  35.     See 
al.-;o  Olaus  Mafiiius,  vol.  xiv.  cliapter  9 

*  Hi.story  of  Maii,  vol.  ii.  p.  59. 


m 


f 

r 


8i 


MARRIAGE    CUSTOMS, 


back,  (luinauds  the  bride.  Her  friends,  wlio  are  likewise 
on  horseback,  give  a  positive  refusal,  on  which  a  mock 
scuffle  ensues.  The  bride,  mounted  behind  her  nearest 
kinsman,  is  carried  ofiP,  and  is  pursued  by  the  bridegroom 
and  his  friends,  with  loud  shouts.  It  is  not  uncommon 
on  such  an  occasion  to  see  200  or  300  sturdy  Cambro- 
Britons  riding  at  full  speed,  crossing  and  jostling,  to  the 
no  small  amusement  of  the  spectators.  When  they  have 
fatigued  themselves  and  their  horses,  the  bridegroom  is 
suffered  to  overtake  his  bride.  He  leads  her  away  in 
triumph,  and  the  scene  is  concluded  with  feasting  and 
festivity.' 

Thus,  then,  we  see  that  marriage  by  capture,  either  as 
a  stern  reality  or  as  an  important  ceremony,  prevails  in 
Australia  and  among  the  Malays,  in  Ilindostan,  Central 
Asia,  Siberia,  and  Kamskatka;  among  the  Esquimaux, 
the  Northern  Redskins,  the  Aborigines  of  Brazil,  in  Chile 
and  Tierra  del  Fuego,  in  the  Pacific  Islands,  both  among 
the  Polynesians  and  the  Fijians,  in  the  Philippines,  among 
the  Arabs  and  Negroes,  in  Circassia,  and,  until  recently, 
throughout  a  great  part  oi^  Europe. 

I  have  already  referred  to  the  custom  of  lifting  the  bride 
over  the  doorstep,  which  we  find  in  such  difterent  and 
distant  races  as  the  Romans,  Redskins  of  Canada,  the 
Chinese,  and  the  Abyssinians.  Hence,  also,  perhaps  our 
honeymoon,  during  which  the  bridegroom  keeps  his  bride 
away  from  her  relatives  and  friends ;  hence  even,  perhaps, 
as  Mr.  M'Lennan  supposes,  the  slipper  is  in  mock  anger 
thrown  after  the  departing  bride  and  bridegroom. 

The  curious  custom  which  forbids  the  father  and 
mother-in-law  to  speak  to  their  son-in-law,  and  vice  versa, 
which  I  have  already  shown  (p.  7)  to  be  very  widely 
distributed,  but  for  which  no  satisfactory  explanation  has 
yet  been  given,  seems  to  me  a  natural  coasequence  of 


MARRIAGE    BY   CONFARREATIO. 


kevviso 
I  mock 
nearest 

0  groom 
ommon 
Jambro- 
;,  to  the 
ey  have 
room  is 
iway  in 
iiig  and 

either  as 
•evails  in 
,  Central 
:iuimaux, 

in  Chile 
h  among 
s,  among 

recently, 

1  the  bride 
[rent  and 

lada,  the 

[•haps  onr 

his  bride 

perhaps, 

)ck  anger 

bher    and 

nee  versdy 

ly  widely 

lation  has 

mence  of 


i 


marriage  by  capture.  When  the  capture  was  a  reality, 
the  indignation  of  the  parents  would  also  be  real ;  when 
it  became  a  mere  symbol,  the  parental  anger  would  be 
symbolised  also,  and  would  be  continued  even  after  its 
orijjin  was  foryfotten. 

The  separation  of  husband  and  wife,  to  which  also  I 
have  referred  (p.  5G),  may  also  arise  from  the  same  custom. 
It  is  very  remarkable  indeed,  how  persistent  are  all 
customs  and  ceremonies  connected  with  marriage.  Thus 
our  *  bride  cake,'  which  so  invariably  accompanies  a 
wedding,  and  which  should  always  he  cut  hy  the  bride,  may 
be  traced  back  to  the  old  Roman  form  of  marriage  by 
*  confarreatio  '  or  eating  together.  So  also  among  the  Iro- 
quois, bride  and  bridegroom  used  to  partake  together  of  a 
cake  of  *  sagamite,' '  which  the  bride  offered  to  her  hus- 
band. The  Fiji  Islanders  ^  have  a  very  similar  custom. 
Again  among  the  Tipperahs,  one  of  the  Hill  tribes  of 
Chittagong,  the  bride  prepares  some  drink,  '  sits  on  her 
lover's  kn;e,  drinks  half,  and  gives  him  the  other  half;  they 
afterwards  crook  together  their  little  fingers.' '  In  one 
form  or  another  a  similar  custom  is  found  among  most  of 
the  Hill  tribes  of  India. 

Mr.  M'Lennan  conceives  that  marriage  by  capture  arose 
from  the  custom  of  exogamy,  that  is  to  say,  from  the 
custom  which  forbad  marriage  within  the  tribe.  Exo- 
gamy, again,  he  considers  to  have  ai-ison  from  the  practice 
of  female  infanticide.  I  have  already  indicated  the 
reasons  which  prevent  me  from  accepting  this  explanation, 
and  which  induce  me  to  regard  exogamy  as  arising  from 
marriage  by  capture,  not  marriage  by  capture  from 
exogamy.      Mr.  M'Lennan's  theory  seems   to  me   quite 

•  Lafitau,  vol.  i.  p.  566,  571.  »  Lewin's  Hill  Tracts  of  Chiltagong 

'  Fiji  and  tho    Fijiiins,  vol.   i.  p.     pp.  71,80 
170. 


m^ 


iiii 


m 


I? 

Ill 


f'*     ! 


fi! 


!i  « 


1 

1 

M 

8G 


EXPIATION    FOR    MARRIAGE 


inconsistent  with  tlie  existence  of  tribes  whicli  have 
marriage  by  capture  and  yet  arc  cndogamous.  The 
Bedouins,  for  instance,  have  unmistakeably  mari'iage  by 
capture,  and  yet  the  man  has  a  right  to  marry  his  cousin, 
if  only  he  be  willing  to  give  the  price  demanded  for  her. 

Mr.  M'Lennan,  indeed,  feels  the  difficulty  which  would 
be  presented  by  such  cases,  the  existence  of  which  he 
seems,  however,  to  doubt ;  adding,  that  if  the  symbol  of 
capture  be  ever  found  in  the  mari'iage  ceremonies  of  an 
endogamous  tribe,  we  may  be  sure  that  it  is  a  relic  of  an 
early  time  at  which  the  tribe  was  organised  on  another 
principle  than  that  of  exogamy.* 

That  marriage  by  capture  has  not  arisen  merely  from 
female  coyness  is  I  think  evident,  as  already  mentioned, 
firstly,  because  it  does  not  account  for  the  resistance  of 
the  relatives,  and  secondly,  because  the  very  question  to 
be  solved  is  why  it  has  become  so  generally  the  custom  to 
win  the  wife  by  force  rather  than  by  persuasion. 

The  explanation  which  I  have  suggested  derives  addi- 
tional probability  from  the  evidence  of  a  general  feeling 
that  marriage  was  an  act  for  which  some  compensation 
was  due  to  those  whose  rights  were  invaded. 

The  nature  of  the  ceremonies  by  which  this  was  effected 
makes  me  reluctant  to  enter  into  this  part  of  the  subject 
at  length;  and  I  will  here  therefore  merely  indicate  in 
general  terms  the  character  of  the  evidence. 

I  will  firstly  refer  to  certain  details  given  by  Dulaure  ^ 
in  his  chapter  on  the  worship  of  Venus,  of  which  he 
regards  these  customs  merely  as  one  illustration,  although 
they  have,  I  cannot  but  think,  a  signification  deeper  than, 
and  different  from,  that  which  he  attributes  to  them. 

We  must  remember  that  the  better  known  savage  races 


'  See    Klcmm,   Allff.    Culturg.   d. 
Menschen,  vol.  iv.  p.  146. 


'  Loc.  cit.  p.  53. 

•  Hist.  Abregeo  des  diff.  Cxiltos. 


•-■a 


IN    BABYLONIA,  ARMENIA,    ^ETIIIOriA,    GREECE. 


87 


have,  in  most  cases,  now  arrived  at  the  stii^o  in  wliicli 
paternal  ri^^lits  are  reeoj^nised,  and  licnee  that  fathers 
can  and  do  sell  their  daughters  into  matrimony.  The 
price  of  a  wife  is  of  conrse  rcj^nhited  by  the  cireumstanees 
of  the  tribe,  and  every,  or  nearly  every,  industrions  young 
man  is  enabled  to  buy  one  for  himself.  As  long,  however, 
as  communal  marriage  rights  were  in  force  this  would  be 
almost  impossible.  That  special  marriage  was  an  in- 
fringement of  these  communal  rights,  for  which  some 
compcTisation  was  due,  seems  to  me  the  true  explanation 
of  the  offerings  which  virgins  were  so  generally  compelled 
to  make  before  being  permitted  to  marry. 

In  many  cases  the  exclusive  possession  of  a  wife  could 
only  be  legally  acquired  by  a  temporary  recognition  of 
the  preexisting  communal  rights.  Thus,  in  Babylonia, 
according  to  Herodotus,*  every  woman  was  compelled  to 
offer  herself  once  in  the  temple  of  Venus,  and  only  after 
doing  so  was  she  considered  free  to  marry.  The  same 
was,  according  to  Strabo,  the  law  in  Armenia.*  In 
some  parts  of  Cyprus  also,  among  the  Nasamones,'  and 
other  Ethiopian  tribes,  he  tells  us  there  was  a  very 
similar  custom,  and  Dulaure  asserts  that  it  existed  also 
at  Carthage,  and  in  several  parts  of  Greece.  The  account 
which  Herodotus  gives  of  the  Lydians,  though  not  so 
clear,  seems  to  indicate  a  similar  law. 

The  customs  of  the  Thracians,  as  described  by  Hero- 
dotus,'* point  to  a  similar  feeling.  Among  races  somewhat 
more  advanced,  the  symbol  supersedes  the  reality  of  this 
detestable  custom,  and  St.  Augustine  found  it  necessary 
to  protest  against  that  which  prevailed,  even  at  his  time, 
in  Italy.* 

Diodorus  Siculus  mentions  that  in  the  Balearic  Islands, 

•  Clio,  199.  *  Terpsichore,  v.  6. 

«  Strabo,  lib.  2.  »  Dulaiire,  loc.  cit.  vol.  i.  p.  160. 

■  Melpomene,  172. 


^1 

l: 


Wv. 


r 


m 


i  •  : 


-I 

:  t : 


'  K     1 


!  ■!;!; 


'if  ' 


88 


niNDOSTAN,    NOUTII    AMKHICA,    flUKKNLAND. 


M;ijorcii,  Minorca,  and  Ivica,  ilw*  l)rl<l«'  \v.is  for  ono  iiij^lit 
cousidcreJ  as  tlh^  common  property  of  all  the  ^MicstM 
present;  after  which  she  belonj^^Ml  exchisively  to  her 
husband. 

In  India,  according  to  CJrosse,'  and  particnlarly  in  tlio 
v;illeys  of  the  CJanj^^^a,  virgins  were  compelled  before 
marriage  to  present  themselves  in  the  temples  dedicated 
to  Jnggernaut,  and  the  same  is  saiel  to  have  been  cnstom- 
jny  in  Poiidicherry  and  at  (joa.' 

Among  the  Sonthals,  one  of  the  aboriginal  Indian 
tribes,  the  marriages  take  i»lace  once  a  year,  mostly  in 
January.  *  For  six  days  all  the  candidates  for  matrimony- 
live  together  in  promiscuous  concubinage;'  after  Avhich 
only  are  the  separate  couples  regarded  as  having  estab- 
lished their  right  to  marry.** 

Carver  mentions^  that  while  among  the  Naudowessies, 
he  *  observed  that  they  paid  uncommon  respect  to  one  of 
their  women,  and  found  that  she  was  entitled  to  it  on 
account  of  a  transaction  that,  in  Europe,  would  have  ren- 
dered her  infamous.'  She  invited  forty  of  the  principal 
warriors  to  her  tent,  i)rovided  them  with  a  feast,  and 
treated  them  in  every  respect  as  husbands.  On  enquiry 
he  was  informed  that  this  was  an  old  custom,  but  had 
fallen  into  abeyance,  and  *  scarcely  once  in  an  age  any  of 
the  females  are  hardy  enough  to  make  this  feast,  notwith- 
standins:  a  husband  of  the  first  rank  awaits  as  a  sure 
reward  the  successful  giver  of  it.' 

Speaking  of  the  Greenland  Esquimaux,  Egede  expressly 
states  that  *  those  are  rei)uted  the  best  and  noblest  tem- 
pered who,  without  any  pain  or  reluctancy,  will  lend  their 
friends  their  wives.'  * 

'  ITistoire  ALregeo  des  Cultes,  rol.  i.  Watson  and  J.  W.  Kayo,  vol.  i.  p.  2. 
p.  431.  *    Travels  in  North  America,  p.  245, 

■•^  I/iid.,  vol.  ii.  p.  108.  *  History  of  Greenland,  p.  142. 

*  The   People   of   India,   by  J.   F. 


CUSTOM  OP  SUriMiYlNG  GUESTS  WITU  TKMroUAUY   WIVKS.      89 


iiilit 


no    11 


triu'Hts 
to   lier 


y  ill  the 

I    before 

[eiUcatod 

custom- 

I  Indian 
iiostly  in 
alrimony 
or  which 

II  <r  ostab- 

lowcssios, 
to  one  of 
to  it  on 
have  r en- 
principal 
ast,  aiul 
n  enquiry 
but  had 
re  any  of 
notwith- 
is  a  sure 

expressly 
)lest  tem- 
end  their 


vol.  i.  p.  2. 
erica,  p.  2io. 
,  p.  112. 


The  saino  fcclin;^,  probably,  «(avo  ris«>  to  tlic  ciirioUH 
cusloiii  r.xistinjjf,  accord iii^  to  JStrabo,  '  unioiijj^  the  (P;ir- 
thiiiii)  Tiipyriiiiis,  tliai  when  a  man  had  had  two  or  three 
childr  n  by  one  wife,  he  was  fd>li<^ed  to  leave  her,  so  that 
hhe  nii|^di(  marry  some  one  else.  Then;  is  some  reason  to 
suppose  that  a  similar  custom  (mce  prevailed  ainoii;^^  the 
Jlomans  ;  thus  Cato,  who  was  proverbially  austere  in  his 
morals,  did  not  think  it  ri^dit  permanently  to  retain  his 
wile  Martia,  whom  his  friend  llortensius  wished  to  marry. 
This  he  accordin^^ly  pernrHed,  and  Martia  lived  with 
llortensius  until  his  death,  when  she  returned  to  her  first 
husband.  The  liif^h  character  of  Cato  is  sullicieiit  proof 
that  he  would  not  have  permitted  this,  if  he  had  rej^arded 
it  as  wron<^ ;  and  Plutarch  expressly  states  that  the 
custom  of  lending  wives  existed  among  the  Romans. 
Akin  to  this  feeling  is  that  which  induces  so  many  savage 
tribes '  to  provide  their  guests  with  temporary  wives. 
To  omit  this  would  be  regarded  as  quite  inhospitable. 
The  practice,  moreover,  seems  to  recognise  the  existence 
of  a  right  inherent  in  every  member  of  the  community, 
and  to  visitors  as  temporary  members  ;  which,  in  the  case 
of  the  latter,  could  not  be  abrogated  by  arrangements 
made  before  their  arrival,  and,  consequently,  without  their 
concurrence.  The  prevalence  of  this  custom  brings  home 
to  us  forcibly  the  difference  existing  between  the  savage 
and  the  civilised  modes  of  regarding  the  relation  of  the 
sexes  to  one  another. 

Perhaps  the  most  striking  case  of  all  is  that  afforded  by 
some  of  the  Brazilian  tribes.  The  captives  taken  by  them 
in  war  used  to  be  kept  for  some  time  and  fatted  up ;  after 
which  they  w^ere  killed  and  eaten.     Yet  even  here,  during 

'  Strabo,  ii.  515,  520,  sians,  Eastprn  and  Wesfnm  Ncfn'ops, 

'  For  instance,  the  Esquimaux,  North  Arabs,  Aliyssiniiius,  Caffii'S,  Mongols, 
and  South  American  Indians,  Polync-     Tulbki,  &c. 


hi 


f 


1: 

t' 

i '- 

I  '^ 

1 

m 

P 

w 

00 


KE.srncT  ron  coi'nTrsAXs. 


ii  I 


If 
"ill 

i'i 

!     ,11 

'  3 


ilio  iiino  tliat  they  li.ul  to  live,  Ihe  i>rM»r  urclches  wero 
always  provided  with  a  temporary  wife.' 

This  view  also  throws  some  lij^jht  on  the  renin rkablo 
snbordination  of  the  wife  to  the  hn.sband,  which  is  so 
characteristic  of  marriage,  and  so  cnriously  inconsistent 
with  all  our  avowed  ideas  ;  nay,  it  also  tends  to  explain 
those  curious  cases  in  which  Iletaira'  were  held  in  <rreater 
estimation  than  those  women  who  were,  as  we  should  con- 
sider properly  and  respectably,  married  to  a  siiifjlo  lius- 
band.*  The  former  were  ori«^inally  fellow-countrywomen 
and  relations ;  the  latter  captives  and  slaves.  And  even 
when  this  ceased  to  be  the  case,  the  idea  would  long 
survive  the  circumstances  which  gave  rise  to  it. 

We  know  that  in  Athens  courtesans  were  highly  re- 
spected. *  The  daily  conversations  they  listened  to,'  says 
Lord  Karnes,'  *  on  philosophy,  politics,  poetry,  enlightened 
tlieir  understanding  and  improved  their  taste.  Their 
^^ouses  became  agreeable  schools,  where  everyone  might 
be  instructed  in  his  own  art.  Socrates  and  Pericles  met 
frequently  at  the  house  of  Aspasia,  for  from  her  they  ac- 
quired delicacy  of  taste,  and,  in  return,  procured  to  her 
public  respect  and  reputation.  Greece  at  that  time  was 
governed  by  orators,  over  whom  some  celebrated  courte- 
sans had  great  influence,  and  by  that  means  entered  deep 
into  the  government.' 

So  also  it  was  an  essential  of  the  model  Platonic  Repub- 
lic that,  *  among  the  guardians,  at  least,  the  sexual  arrange- 
ments should  be  under  public  regulation,  and  the  monopoly 
of  one  woman  by  one  man  forbidden.'  * 

In  the  famous  Indian  city  of  Vesali  *  marriage  was  for- 
bidden, and  high  rank  attached  to  the  lady  who  held  office 

'  Lafitau,  Moeurs  dis  Sauv.  Amer.  Africa,  vol.  i.  p.  198. 

vol.  ii.  p.  291.  "  History  of  Man,  vol.  ii.  p.  ."iC. 

'■*  Biu-hofen,   Das    Miitterroclit,    p.  *  Buiu's  Meutal  and  Moral  Sciecca 
xix.  p.  l'J5.   Durton's  Lake  licgionsof 


>s  wcro 

1   is   80 

explain 

lid  con- 
;le  lius- 
pvoincn 
lid  even 
Id  long 


Tidy  rc- 
to,'  says 
icrlitened 
Their 
[Q  mi^ijlit 
cles  met 
tlioy  ae- 
>d  to  li'^r 

ime  -was 
courte- 

red  deep 


Repub- 
rraiige- 
onopoly 


n 


was  for- 
eld  office 


p.  50. 
tral  Scieuca 


llFLIfllOUS   CnARArTER    OP   COrUTESAN'S. 


Ot 


nH  Chief  of  the  Courtesans.'  When  th(»  Holy  Buddha  (Suk- 
yjiniuni),  in  his  old  n^'o,  visited  Vesali,  *  lie  was  Iodised 
ill  a  garden  helou^jfin;^  to  the  chief  of  tho  courtesans,  and 
received  a  visit  from  this  jijrand  lady,  who  drove  out  to 
see  him,  atlended  by  her  suite  in  stately  earriai^'cs. 
llaviiif,'  approached  and  bowed  down,  she  t(»ok  her  seat 
c>n  one  side  of  him  and  listened  to  a  discourse*  on  Dharnuu 
....  On  entering  the  town  she  met  the  rulers  of  V'esali, 
gorgeously  apparelled ;  but  th»nr  e(piipages  made  way  for 
her.  They  aske<l  her  to  resign  to  them  the  honour  of 
( iitertaining  Sakyamuni ;  but  she  refused,  and  the  great 
man  himself,  when  solicited  by  the  rulers  in  person,  also 
refused  to  break  his  engagement  with  the  lady.'  * 

Until  recently  tho  courtesans  were  tho  only  educated 
women  in  India.*  Even  now  many  of  the  great  Hindoo 
temples  have  bands  of  courtesans  attached  to  them,  who 
*  follow  their  trade  without  public  shame.  It  is  a  strange 
anomaly  that,  while  a  courtesan,  born  of,  or  adopted 
into,  a  courtesan  family,  is  not  held  to  pursue  a  shame- 
less vocation,  other  women  who  have  fallen  from  good 
rej^ute  are  esteemed  disgraceful.''  There  is  in  reality, 
however,  nothing  anomalous  in  this.  Tho  former  con- 
tinue the  old  custom  of  the  country,  imder  solemn  reli- 
gious sanction  ;  the  latter,  on  the  contrary,  have  given 
way  to  lawless  inclinations,  have  outraged  public  feel- 
ings, have  probably  broken  their  marriage  vows,  and 
brought  disgrace  on  their  families.  In  Ancient  Egypt, 
again,  it  would  appear  that  illegitimate  children  were 
under  certain  circumstances  preferred  over  those  born  in 
wedlock.* 

When  the  special  wife  Avas  a  stranger  and  a  slave,  while 

'  Mrs.  Spier's  Life  in  Ancient  India,  '  The   People   of    India,    l)y  J.    F. 

p.  281.  Watson  and  J.W.  Kayo,  vol.  iii.  p.  105. 

'•*  Dubois'  People  of  India,  pp.  21 7i  *  Bachofcn,    Das    Multorrcelit.   p. 

402.  125. 


b 


m 


\u 


'I  ."> 


} 


1  !!. 


;     ■ 
I 


92 


EXOGAMY. 


n\k'> 


tlie  communal  wife  was  a  relative  and  a  frcewoman,  such 
feelings  would  naturally  arise,  and  would,  in  some  cases, 
long  survive  the  social  condition  to  which  thej  owed  their 
origin. 

I  now  pass  to  the  curious  custom,  for  which  M'Leraian 
has  proposed  the  convenient  term  *  exogamy  '  —  that, 
namely,  of  necessarily  marrying  out  of  the  tribe.  Tylor, 
who  called  particular  attention  to  this  custom  in  his 
interesting  work  on  *  The  Early  History  of  Man,'  which 
was  published  in  the  very  same  year  as  M'Lennan's 
'  Primitive  Marriage,'  thought  that  -  the  evils  of  marrying 
near  relatives  might  be  the  main  ground  of  this  series  of 
restrictions.'  Morgan  also  considers  exogamy  as  *  ex- 
jilainable,  and  only  explainable,  as  a  reformatory  move- 
ment to  break  up  the  intermarriage  of  blood  relations,' 
and  which  could  only  be  effected  by  exogamy,  because  all 
in  the  tribe  were  regarded  as  related.  In  fact,  however, 
exogamy  afforded  little  protection  against  the  marriage  of 
relatives,  and,  wherever  it  was  systematised,  it  permitted 
marriage  even  between  half  brothers  and  sisters,  eithei 
on  the  father's  or  mother's  side.  Where  an  objection  to 
the  intermarriage  of  relatives  existed,  exogamy  was  un- 
necessary ;  where  it  did  not  exist,  exogamy  could  not 
arise. 

M'Lennan  says,  '  I  believe  this  restriction  on  marriage 
to  be  connected  with  the  practice  in  early  times  of  female 
infanticide,  wdiich,  rendering  women  scarce,  led  at  once  to 
polyandry  within  the  tribe,  and  the  capturing  of  women 
from  without.'  *  He  has  not  alluded  to  the  natural  pre- 
ponderance of  men  over  women.  Thus,  throughout  Europe, 
the  j)roportion  of  boys  to  girls  is  as  lOG  to  100.^  Here, 
therefore,  even  without  inf-inticide,  we  see  that  there  is 


I 


'  Loc.  cit.  p.  138. 


Wait's  Anthropology,  p.  111. 


ORIGIN   OF    EXOGAMY. 


0:3 


,  sncli 
cases, 
L  their 

leraian 
-  that, 
Tylor, 
ill  his 
which 
Tinan's 
irryiiif? 
;ries  of 
,s   *  ex- 

move- 
ations/ 
[luse  all 
owever, 

ia.ge  of 
Irmitted 

eithei 
jtion  to 

as  un- 
hid  not 

larriage 
female 

lonce  to 
women 

|ral  pre- 

lurope, 

Here, 

Ithere  ia 

ii. 


no  05xaet  ualance  between  the  sexes.  In  )nany  suvage 
races,  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  it  has  been  ob^jerved 
the  men  are  much  more  numerous,  but  it  is  difficult  to 
ascertain  how  far  this  is  due  to  an  original  difference,  and 
how  far  to  other  causes. 

It  is  conceivable  that  the  difference  between  cndogamous 
and  exogamous  tribes  may  be  due  to  the  different  propor- 
tion of  the  sexes  :  those  races  tending  to  become  exogamous 
where  boys  jDrevail ;  those,  on  the  other  hand,  endogamous 
where  the  reverse  is  the  case.^  I  am  not,  however,  aware 
that  we  have  any  statistics  which  enable  us  to  determine 
this  point,  nor  do  I  believe  that  it  is  the  true  explanation 
of  the  custom. 

Infanticide  is,  no  doubt,  very  prevalent  among  savages. 
As  long,  indeed,  as  men  were  few  in  number,  enemies 
were  scarce  and  game  was  tame.  Under  these  circum- 
stances, there  was  no  temptation  to  infanticide.  There 
were  some  things  which  women  could  do  better  than 
men,  some  occupations  which  pride  and  laziness,  or 
both,  induced  them  to  leave  to  the  women.  As  soon, 
however,  as  in  any  country  population  became  even 
slightly  more  dense,  neighbours  became  a  nuisance.  They 
invaded  the  hunting  grounds,  and  disturbed  the  game. 
Hence,  if  for  no  other  reason,  wars  would  arise.  Once 
begun,  they  would  continually  break  out  a^ain  and  again, 
under  one  pretence  or  another.  Men  for  slaves,  women 
for  wives,  and  the  thirst  for  glory,  made  a  weak  tribe 
always  a  temptation  to  a  strong  one.  Under  these  cir- 
cumstances, female  children  became  a  source  of  weakness 
in  several  ways.  They  ate,  and  did  not  hunt.  Tlie^ 
weakened  their  mothers  when  young,  and,  when  grown- 
up, were  a  temptation  to  surrounding  tribes.  Hence  female 
infanticide  is  very  prevalent,  and  easily  accounted   for. 

'  See  Das  Mutterreclit,  p.  100. 


( 


,   i 


wr 


I      't 


I* 
J 


)1 


n 


yi<        GKADUAL    DEVELOrMKNT    OF    INDIVIDUAL    MAKIIIAGE. 

Yet  I  cannot  ref,^arcl  it  as  the  true  cause  of  exogamy. 
On  the  other  hand,  we  must  remember  that  under  the 
communal  system  the  women  of  the  tribe  were  all  com- 
mon property.  K^o  one  could  appropriate  one  of  them  to 
himself,  without  infringing  on  the  £,-?neral  rights  of  the 
tribe.  Women  taken  in  war  were,  on  the  contrarv,  in  a 
diiferent  position.  The  tribe,  as  a  tribe,  had  no  right  to 
them,  and  men  surely  would  reserve  to  themselves  ex- 
clusively their  own  prizes.  These  captives  then  would 
naturally  become  the  wives  in  our  sense  of  the  term. 

Several  causes  would  tend  to  increase  the  importance  of 
the  separate,  and  decrease  that  of  communal  marriage. 
The  impulse  which  it  would  give  to,  and  receive  back 
from,  the  development  of  the  affections  ;  the  convenience 
with  reference  to  domestic  arrangements,  the  natural 
wishes  of  the  wife  herself,  and  last,  not  least,  the  inferior 
energy  of  the  children  sprung  from  *  in  and  in  '  marriages, 
would  all  tend  to  increase  the  importance  of  individual 
marriage. 

Even  were  there  no  other  cause,  the  advantage  of  cross- 
ing, so  well  known  to  breeders  of  stock,  would  soon  give  a 
marked  preponderance  to  those  races  by  whom  exogamy 
was  largely  practised,  and  hence  we  need  not  be  surprised 
to  find  exogamy  very  prevalent  among  the  lower  races 
of  man. 

When  this  state  of  things  had  gone  on  for  some  time, 
usage,  as  M'Lennan  well  observes,  would  *  establish  a 
prejudice  among  the  tribes  observing  it  —  a  prejudice 
strong  as  a  principle  of  religion,  as  every  prejudice 
relating  to  marriage  is  apt  to  be — against  marrying 
women  of  their  own  stock.'  ^ 

We  should  not,  perhaps,  have  a  priori  expected  to 
find  among  savages  any  such  remarkable  restriction,  yet 

'  Loc.  cit.  p.  110. 


t  ; 


JAGE. 


IIESTRICTIOXS    ON    MARRIAGE    AMONG    SAVAGES.  05 


cogamy. 
der  the 
lU  com- 
thein  to 
3  of  the 
TV,  in  a 
right  to 
lives  ex- 
n  would 
m. 

:tance  of 
larriage. 
ive  back 
venience 
natural 
3  inferior 
larriages, 
idividual 

of  cross- 
3n  give  a 
exogamy 
surprised 

er  races 

me  time, 
ablish  a 
prejudice 
prejudice 
Harrying 


it  is  very  widely  distributed  ;  and  from  this  point  of  view 
we  can,  I  think,  clearly  see  how  it  arose. 

In  Australia,  whore  the  same  family  names  arc  common 
almost  over  the  whole  continent,  no  man  may  marry  a 
woman  whose  family  name  is  the  same  as  his  own,  anu 
who  belongs  therefore  to  the  same  tribe. ^  *No  nrai,' 
says  Mr.  Lang,  '  can  marry  a  woman  of  the  same  clan, 
thougli  the  parties  be  no  way  related  according  to  our 
ideas.'  ^ 

In  Eastern  Africa,  Burton  '  says  that '  some  clans  of  the 
Somal  will  not  marry  one  of  the  same,  or  even  of  a 
consanguineous  family ; '  and  the  Bakalari  have  the  same 
rule. '' 

Du  Chaillu,'  speaking  of  Western  Equatorial  Africn,, 
says,  '  the  law  of  marriages  among  the  tribes  I  have 
visited  is  peculiar ;  each  tribe  is  divided  into  clans ;  the 
children  in  most  of  the  tribes  belong  to  the  clan  of 
the  mother,  and  these  cannot  by  any  possible  laws  marry 
among  themselves,  however  removed  in  degree  they  may 
have  been  connected :  it  is  considered  an  abomination 
among  them.  But  there  exists  no  objection  to  possessing 
a  father's  or  brother's  wife.  I  could  not  but  be  struck 
with  the  healthful  influence  of  such  regulations  against 
blood  marriages  among  them.' 

In  India  the  Warali  tribes  are  divided  into  sections, 
and  no  man  may  marry  a  woman  belonging  to  his  own 
section.  In  the  Magar  tribes  these  sections  are  called 
Thums,  and  the  same  rule  prevails.  Col.  Dalton  tells  us 
that  *the  Hos,  Moondahs,  and  Oraons  are  divided  into 
clans  or  keelis,  and  may  not  take  to  wife  a  girl  of  the 


ected  to 
ion,  yet 


>4. 


'  Eyre's  Discoveries    in  Australia,         *  Trans.  Ethn.  Soc.  N.  S.  vol.  i.  p. 

vol.  ii.  p.  329.    Grey's  Journal,  p.  242.  321. 

*  The  Aliorigines  of  Australia,  p.  10.         *  Ibid.  p.  fi07. 

*  First  FootKteps,  p.  120. 


i 


If 

J': 


OQ 


EXOGAMY    IN    HINDOSTAN. 


i     -'t 


III 


■wr  ; 


same  kecli.*  Again  the  Garrows  are  divided  into  'Ma- 
liaris,'    and  a  man    may  not   marry  a   girl   of  his   own 

*  Mahari.' 

Iiie  Mnnnieporees  and  other  tribes  inhabiting  the 
hills  round  Munniepore — the  Konpooees,  Mows,  Murams, 
and  Murrings — as  M'Lennan  points  out  on  the  authority 
of  M'Culloch, '  are  each  and  all  divided  into  four  families : 
Koomrul,  Looang,  Angom,  and  Ningthaja.  A  member 
of  any  of  these  families  may  marry  a  member  of  any 
other,  but  the  intermarriage  of  members  of  the  same 
family  is   strictly  prohibited.'     The   Todas,    says   Metz,' 

*  are  divided  into  five  distinct  classes,  known  by  the 
names  Peiky,  Pekkan,  Kuttan,  Kennae,  and  Tody ;  of 
which  the  first  is  regarded  as  the  most  aristocratic. 
These  classes  do  not  even  intermarry  with  each  other, 
and  can  therefore  never  lose  their  distinctive  characteris- 
tics.' 

The  Khonds,  says  General  Campbell,  *  regard  it  as  de- 
grading to  bestow  their  daughters  in  marriage  on  men 
of  their  own  tribe ;  and  consider  it  more  manly  to  seek 
their  wives  in  a  distant  country.' ^  Major  M'Pherson 
also  tells  us  that  they  consider  marriage  between  people 
of  the  same  tribe  as  wicked,  and  punishable  with  death. 
The  Kalmucks,  according  to  De  Hell,  are  divided  into 
hordes,  and  no  man  can  marry  Zu  woman  of  the  same 
horde.  The  bride,  says  Bergman,  is  always  chosen  from 
another  stock ;  '  among  the  Dubets,  for  instance,  from  the 
Torgot  stock,  and  among  the  Torgots  from  the  Dubet 
stock.' 

The  same  custom  prevails  among  the  Circassians  and 
the   Samoyeds.'*     The  Ostiaks  regard   it  as  a  crime  to 


'  Account  of  the  Valley  of  JMunnie- 
pore,  18r)S),  pp.  49-69. 

2  Tribes  of  thcNeilgherryllil's,  p.21. 


'  M'LonnaTi,  p.  9.5. 
*  Pallas,  vol.  iv.  p.  9G. 


EXOGAMY    IN    SIBERIA    AND    NOrvTII    AMERICA. 


0^ 


to  'Ma- 
Ins   own 


in"' 


the 
Murams, 
aithority 
families : 
member 
•  of  any 
;lie  same 
s   Metz," 
by  the 
[?ody;   of 
stocratic. 
3h  other, 
iracteris- 

it  as  de- 
on  men 
r  to  seek 
'Pherson 
m  people 
;h  death, 
ded  into 
;he   same 
sen  from 
from  the 
e  Dubet 

3ians  and 
1  crime  to 


marry  a  woman  of  the  same  family  or  even  of  the  same 
name.* 

When  a  Jakut  (Siberia)  wishes  to  marry,  he  must, 
says  Middendorf,'^  choose  a  girl  from  another  clan.  No 
one  is  permitted  to  maiTy  a  woman  from  his  own  clan. 
In  China,  says  Davis,'  *  marriage  between  all  persons  of 
the  same  surname  being  unlawful,  this  rule  must  of  course 
include  all  descendants  of  the  male  branch  for  ever;  and 
as,  in  so  vast  a  population,  there  are  not  a  great  many 
more  than  one  hundred  surnames  throughout  the  empire, 
the  embarrassments  that  arise  from  so  strict  a  law  must 
be  considerable.' 

Amongst  the  Tinne  Indians  oi  North-west  America, 
*  a  Chit-sangh  cannot,  by  their  rules/  marry  a  Chit  sangh, 
although  the  rule  is  set  at  naught  occasionally ;  out  when 
it  does  take  place  the  persons  are  ridiculed  and  laughed 
at.  The  man  is  said  to  have  married  his  sister,  even 
though  she  may  be  from  another  tribe,  and  there  be  not 
the  slightest  connection  by  blood  between  them.  The 
same  way  with  the  other  two  divisions.  The  children  are 
of  the  same  colour  as  their  mother.  They  receive  caste 
from  their  mother ;  if  a  male  Chit-sangh  marr}^  r-.  Naii  - 
tsingh  woman,  the  children  are  Nah-tsingh,  and  if  a  male 
Nah-tsingh  marry  a  Chit-sangh  woman,  the  children  are 
Chit-sangh,  so  that  the  divisions  are  always  changing.  As 
the  fathers  die  out  the  country  inhabited  by  the  Chit-sangh 
becomes  occupied  by  the  Nah-tsingh,  and  so  vice  versa. 
They  are  continually  changing  countries,  as  it  were.' 

Among  the  Kenaiyers  (N.  W.  America  "I,  '  it  was  the 
custom  that  the  men  of  one  stock  should  choose  their 
wives  from  another,  and  the  offspring   belonged  to  the 


•  ralltis,  Tol.  iv.  p.  C9. 
"  Ribirische  Reise,  p.  72. 
»  TLg  Chinese,  vol.  i.  p.  282. 


*  Notes  on  the  Tinnoh.     ITardisty, 
Smithsonian  Eeport,  1SG6,  p.  315. 


!       t 


% 


ii: 


98 


EXOGAMY   IN   NORTH   AND   SOUTH   AMERICA. 


!      '1!  ^ 


i:        « 


race  of  the  inotlier.  This  custom  has  fallen  into  disuse, 
and  marriages  in  the  same  tribe  occur ;  but  the  old  people 
say  that  mortality  among  the  Kenaiyer  has  arisen  from 
the  neglect  of  the  ancient  usage.  A  man's  nearest  heirs 
in  this  tribe  are  his  sister's  children.' '  The  Tsimsheean 
Indians  of  British  Columbia  *  are  similarly  divided  intx> 
tribes,  and  totems  or  *  crests,  ■whic  .1  are  commt^n  to  all  the 
tribes.  The  crests  are  the  whale,  the  porpoise,  the  eagle, 
the  coon,  the  wolf,  and  the  frog.  In  connection  with 
these  crests,  several  very  important  points  of  Indian 
character  and  law  are  seen.  The  relationship  existing 
between  persons  of  the  same  crest  is  nearer  than  that 
between  members  of  the  same  tribe,  which  is  seen  in  this 
that  members  of  the  same  tribe  may  marry,  but  those  of 
the  same  crest  are  not  allowed  to  do  so  under  any  circum- 
stances ;  that  is,  a  whale  may  not  riarry  a  whale,  but  a 
whale  may  marry  a  frog,  &c.' 

Indeed,  as  regards  the  Northern  Uedskins  generally,  it 
is  stated'  in  the  Archsoologia  Americana  that  '  every 
nation  was  divided  into  a  number  of  clans,  varying  in  the 
several  nations  from  three  to  eight  or  ten,  the  members  of 
which  respectively  were  dispersed  indiscriminately  through- 
out the  whole  nation.  It  has  been  fully  ascertained  that 
the  inviolable  regulations  by  which  these  clans  were  per- 
petuated amongst  the  southern  nations  were,  first,  that  no 
man  could  marry  in  his  own  clan ;  secondly,  that  every 
child  should  belong  to  his  or  her  mother's  clan.' 

The  Indians  of  Guiana  ^  *  are  divided  into  families,  each 
of  which  has  a  distinct  name,  as  the  Siwidi,  Karuafiidi, 
Onisidi,  &c.  Unlike  our  families,  these  all  descend  in  the 
female  line,  and  no  individual  of  either  sex  is  allowed  to 


I.  {;; 


'  Richardson's  Boat  Jonrnoy,  vol.  i. 
p.  406.  See  also  Smithsonian  Report, 
1866,  p.  326. 

*  Metlahkatlah,  published  hy  tho 
Church  Missionary  Soe.  1869,  p.  6. 


'  M'Lennan,p.  121.  Lafitau,  vol.  i. 
p.  558.     Tani;er's  Narrative,  p.  313. 

*  Brett's  Indian  Tribes  of  Guiana, 
p.  98. 


THE    CAUSES   OP    POLYGAMY. 


M 


disuse, 

people 
n  from 
it  heirs 
islieean 
ed  intx) 
>  all  the 
e  eagle, 
)n  with 

Indian 
existing 
an  that 
I  in  this 
those  of 
circnni- 
c,  but  a 

3raily,  it 
'  every 
.2  in  the 
tnbers  of 
hrough- 
ed  that 
rere  per- 
that  no 
it  every 

ies,  each 
ruafudif 
d  in  the 
owed  to 

fitau,  vol.i. 
D,  p.  313. 
of  Guiana, 


marry  another  of  the  same  family  name.  Thus,  a  woman 
of  the  Siwidi  family  bears  the  same  name  as  her  mother, 
but  neither  her  father  nor  her  husband  can  be  of  that 
family.  Her  children  and  the  children  of  her  daughters 
will  also  be  called  Siwidi,  but  both  her  sons  and  daughters 
are  prohibited  from  an  alliance  with  any  individual  bear- 
ing the  same  name ;  though  they  may  marry  into  the 
family  of  their  father,  if  they  choose.  These  customs  are 
strictly  observed,  and  any  breach  of  them  would  be  con- 
sidered as  wicked.' 

Lastly,  the  Brazilian  races,  according  to  Martiufj,  differ 
greatly  in  their  marriage  regulations.  In  some  of  he  very 
scattered  tribes,  who  live  in  small  families  far  remote  from 
one  another,  the  nearest  relatives  often  intermarry.  In  more 
populous  districts,  on  the  contrary,  the  tribes  are  divided 
into  families,  and  a  strict  system  of  exogamy  prevails.* . 

Thus,  then,  we  see  that  this  remarkable  custom  of 
exogamy  prevails  throughout  Western  and  Eastern  Africa, 
in  Circassia,  1  '  idostan,  Tartary,  Siberia,  China,  and 
Australia,  as  well  as  in  North  and  South  America. 

The  relations  existing  between  husband  and  wife  in  the 
lower  races  of  Man,  as  indicated  in  the  preceding  pages, 
are  sufficient  to  remove  all  surprise  at  the  prevalence  of 
polygamy.  There  are,  however,  other  causes,  not  less 
powerful,  though  perhaps  less  prominent,  to  which  much 
influence  must  be  ascribed.  Thus  in  all  tropical  regions 
girls  become  marriageable  very  young ;  their  beauty  is 
acquired  early,  and  soon  fades,  while  men,  on  the  con- 
trary, retain  their  full  powers  much  longer.  Hence 
when  love  depends,  not  on  similarity  of  tastes  pursuits  or 
opinions,  but  entirely  on  external  attractions,  we  cannot 
wonder  that  every  man  who  is  able  to  do  so,  provides 
himself  with  a  succession  of  favourites,  even  when  the  first 

'  Loo.  cit.  p.  63. 


■^■^1 


(•, 


ifn/r 


!    t 


i^ 


4^^ 


hi' 


100 


rOLTAXDrtT. 


\.m  V 


wife  remains  not  only  nominally  the  licatl,  but  roally  his 
confidant  and  adviser.  Another  cause  has  no  doubt  exer- 
cised great  influence.  Milk  is  necessary  for  children,  and 
in  the  absence  of  domestic  animals  it  consequently  follows 
that  they  are  not  weaned  until  they  are  several  years  old. 
The  cfiPect  of  this  on  the  social  relations  has  been  already 
referred  to  {ante,  p.  55). 

Polyandry,  on  the  contrar}--,  is  far  less  common,  though 
more  frequent  than  is  generally  supposed.  M'Lennan  and 
Morgan,  indeed,  both  regard  it  as  a  phase  through  which 
human  progress  has  necessarily  passed.  If,  however,  wo 
define  it  as  the  condition  in  which  one  woman  is  mar- 
ried to  several  men,  but  (as  distinguished  from  communal 
marriage)  to  them  exclusively,  then  I  am  rather  disposed 
to  regard  it  as  an  exceptional  phenomenon,  arising  from 
the  paucity  of  females. 

M'Lennan,  indeed,'  gives  a  long  list  of  tribes  which 
he  regards  as  polyandrous,  namely,  those  of  Thibet,  Cash- 
meer,  and  the  Himalayan  regions,  the  Todas,  Coorgs, 
Nairs,  and  various  other  races  in  India,  in  Ceylon,  in  New 
Zealand  ^  and  one  or  two  other  Pacific  islands,  in  the 
Aleutian  Archipelago,  among  the  Koryaks,  the  Saporogian 
Cossacks,  on  the  Orinoco,  in  parts  of  Africa,  and  in  Lan- 
cerota.  To  these  he  adds  the  ancient  Britons,  some  of  the 
Median  cantons,  the  Picts,  and  the  Getes,  while  traces  of 
it  occurred  among  the  ancient  Germans.  To  these  I  may 
add  that  of  some  families  among  the  Iroquois.  On  the 
other  hand,  several  of  the  above  cases  are,  I  think,  merely 
instances  of  communal  marriage.  Indeed,  it  is  evident 
that  where  our  information  is  incomplete,  it  must  often  be 
far  from  easy  to  distinguish  between  communal  marriage 
and  true  polyandry. 

If  we  examine  the  above  instances,  some  of  them  will, 

*  Loc.  cit.  p.  180.  *  Lafitiiu,  loc.  elf.  voL  i.  p.  655. 


POLYANDRT    EXCErTIOXAL. 


101 


^ally  liis 
bt  excr- 
ren,  and 
\f  follows 
ears  old. 
.  abcady 

I,  tliougli 
nnau  and 
rli  wliicli 
vcvcr,  wo 
1  is  mar- 
ommunal 
■  disposed 
sing  from 

)es  wliicli 
)et,  Casli- 
,  Coorgs, 
n,  in  New 
s,  in  the 
jporogian 
I  in  Lan- 
me  of  the 
traces  of 
}se  1  may 
On  the 
k,  merely 
s  evident 
often  be 


marriage 


Ihem  will, 


abo. 


I  think,  prove  untenable.  The  passage  referred  to  in 
Tacitus'  does  not  appear  to  me  to  justify  us  in  regarding 
the  Germans  as  having  been  polyandrous. 

Erman  is  correctly  referred  to  by  M'Lennan,  as  men- 
tioning the  existence  of '  lawful  polyandry  in  the  Aleutian 
Islands.'  lie  does  not,  however,  give  his  authority  for  the 
statement.  The  account  ho  gives  of  the  Koryaks  by  no 
means,  I  think,  proves  that  polyandry  occurs  among  them. 
The  case  of  the  Kalmucks,  to  judge  from  the  account 
given  by  Clarke,'^  is  certainly  one  in  which  brothers,  but 
brothers  only,  have  a  wife  in  common. 

For  Polynesia,  MTiCnnan  relies  on  the  Legend  of 
Kupe,  as  told  by  Sir  G.  Grey.^  Here,  however,  it  is  merely 
stated  that  two  brothers  named  Ihuatamai  and  Ihuware- 
ware,  having  found  Ilinauri,  when  she  was  thrown  by  the 
surf  on  the  coast  at  Wairarawa,  *  looked  uj)on  her  Avith 
jjleasure,  and  took  her  as  a  wife  between  them  both.'  This 
seems  to  me  rather  a  case  of  communal  marriage  than  of 
polyandry,  especially  when  the  rest  of  the  legend  is  borne 
in  mind.  Neither  does  the  evidence  as  regards  Africa  seem 
to  me  at  all  satisfactory.  Reade,  in  the  passage  referred  to 
by  Mr.  M'Lennan,  merely  says  that  '  the  sisters  of  the  kin^i' 
may  negotiate  with  whom  and  with  as  many  as  they  please 
for  the  contribution  of  royal  heirs ;  provided  always  that 
the  man  is  strong,  good-looking,  and  of  a  decent  position 
in  life :  conditions  w^hich  these  ladies  cannot,  I  am  sure 
find  very  harsh.''*  This  implies  lax  morality,  but  is  not 
even  an  indication  of  regular  polyandry. 

Polyandry  is  no  doubt  very  widely  distributed  ovct 
India,  Thibet,  and  Ceylon.  In  the  latter  island  the  joint 
husbands  are  always  brothers.-'*  But,  on  the  whole,  law- 
ful polyandry  (as  opposed  to  mere  laxness  of  morality) 


\ 


f 


'  Germ.  xx. 

'  Travels,  vol.  i.  p.  211. 

*  Poljuebian  Mythology,  p.  81. 


*  Reade's  Savage  Africa,  p.  43. 
»  Davy's  Ceylon,  p.  286. 


n/^ 


i 


\in 


102 


ENDOGAMY. 


seoms  to  bo  an  oxcoptional  system,  {roncnilly  iiitoiuled  to 
avoid  the  evils  arisiii|^  from  monoj^amy  where  the  number 
of  women  is  less  than  that  of  men. 

Passinfj  on  now  to  the  custom  of  endorjamy,  M'Lennan 
remarks  that  *thc  separate  endo^i^amous  tribes  are  nejirly 
as  numerous,  and  they  are  in  some  respects  as  rude,  as 
the  separate  exogamous  tribes.' ' 

So  far  as  my  knowledf]^e  goes,  on  the  contrary,  endogamy 
is  much  less  jn-evalent  than  exogamy,  and  it  seems  to  me 
to  have  arisen  from  a  feeling  of  race-pride,  and  a  disdain 
of  surrounding  tribes  which  were  either  really  or  hypo- 
thetically  in  a  lower  condition. 

Thus  among  the  Ahts  of  N.  W.  America,  as  mentioned 
by  Sproat,  *  though  the  different  tribes  of  the  Aht  nation 
are  frequently  at  wur  with  one  another,  women  are  not 
captured  from  other  tribes  for  marriage,  but  only  to  be  kept 
as  slaves.  The  idea  of  slavery  connected  with  capture  is 
so  common,  that  a  free-born  Aht  would  hesitate  to  marry 
a  woman  taken  in  war,  whatever  her  rank  had  been  in  her 
own  tribe.'  * 

Some  of  the  Indian  races,  as  the  Kocchs  and  the  IIos,  are 
forbidden  to  marry  excepting  within  the  tribe.  Tlie  latter 
at  least,  however,  are  not  *.ruly  endogamous,  for,  as  already 
mentioned,  they  are  divided  into  *  keelis,'  or  clans,  and 
*  may  not  take  to  wife  a  girl  of  their  own  keeli.'  ^  Thus 
they  are  in  fact  exogamous,  and  it  is  possible  that  some 
of  the  other  cases  of  endogamy  might,  if  we  were  better 
acquainted  with  them,  present  the  same  duplex  pheno- 
menon. 

Among  the  Yerkalas  *  of  Southern  India  *  a  custom  pre- 
vails by  which  the  first  two  daughters  of  a  family  may  be 


'   Loc.  cit.  p.  145. 

^  Sproat,     Scenes    and    Studies    of 
Savage  Life,  p.  98. 


"  Ante,  p.  95. 

*  Shortt!   Trans.  Ellin.  Sue.  N.  S. 


vol.  vii.  p.  187. 


ENDOGAMY. 


103 


cluiinoLl  by  the  inatenial  uiicliMis  wivos  for  his  sons.  Tho 
value  of  a  wife  is  fixed  at  twenty  paj^jodas.  The  nniternal 
uncle's  ri'dit  to  tho  lh*st  two  clau<;hters  is  valued  at 
eiy^ht  out  of  twenty  paj^odas,  and  is  carried  out  thus  : — if 
he  urges  his  preferential  claim,  and  marries  his  own  sons 
to  his  nieees,  he  pays  for  each  only  twelve  pagodas;  and, 
similarly,  if  he,  from  not  having  sons,  or  any  other  cause, 
forego  his  claim,  he  receives  eight  pagodas  of  the  twenty 
paid  to  the  girls'  parents  by  anybody  else  who  may  many 
them.' 

The  Doingnaks,  a  branch  of  the  Chulvmas,  appear  also 
to  have  been  endogamous,  and  Caj^tain  Lewin  mentions 
that  they  *  abandoned  the  parent  stem  during  the  chief- 
ship  of  Jaunbux  Khan  about  1782.  The  reason  of  this 
split  was  a  disagreement  on  the  subject  of  marriages.  The 
chief  passed  an  order  that  the  Doingnak  should  intermarry 
with  the  tribe  in  general.  This  was  contrary  to  ancient 
custom,  and  caused  discontent  and  eventually  a  break 
in  the  tribe.'  •  This  is  one  of  the  very  few  qases  where 
we  have  evidence  of  a  change  in  this  respect.  The 
Kalangs  of  Java,  who  have  some  claim  to  be  regarded  as 
the  aborigines  of  the  island,  are  also  endogamous,  and 
when  a  man  asks  a  girl  in  marriage  he  must  prove  his 
descent  from  their  peculiar  stock." 

The  Mantchu  Tartars  forbid  marriages  between  those 
whose  family  names  are  different.*  In  Guam  brothers 
and  sisters  used  to  intermarry,  and  it  is  even  stated  that 
such  unions  were  preferred  as  being  most  natural  and 
proper.'*  Endogamy  would  seem  to  have  prevailed  in  the 
Sandwich  Islands,*  and  in  New  Zealand,  where,  as  Yate 
mentions,  '  great  opposition  is  made  to   anyone  taking. 


'f 


'  Lewin's  Ilill  Tracts  of  Chittagong,         ^  M'Lennan,  loc.  cit.  p.  146. 
p.  fifl.  Arago's  Letters.    Proycinct's  Voy* 

*  Raffles'   History   of  Java,   vol.   i.  agt",  vol.  ii.  p.  17. 
p.  328.  •  Ibid.  p.  94. 


f    ■', 


m!^' 


101 


THE    Mll.K-TIK. 


i    $ 


except  fur  sumo  polilical  purpose,  a  wile  from  aiioUior 
tribo;  so  that  such  iutormarruipfes  seldom  occur.' ' 

The  itloa  of  relaf  iousliip  as  existing  anioni^'st  ua,  founded 
on  marrui|^e,  and  impl)'iii|4'  equal  connectu»n  of  a  child  to 
its  father  and  mother,  seems  so  natural  and  obvious  that 
tliero  are,  pei-liaps,  many  to  whom  the  possibility  of  any 
other  has  not  occurred.  The  facts  already  recorded  will, 
however,  have  i)repared  us  for  the  existence  of  peculiar 
ideas  as  to  relationship.  The  strenji^th  of  the  foster- 
feeling — the  milk- tie — amon^  the  Scotch  llij^hlanders,  is 
a  familiar  instance  of  a  mode  of  re{j;ardii»«^  relationship 
very  different  from  that  prevalent  amongst  us. 

We  have  also  seen  that,  under  the  custom  of  communal 
marriage,  a  child  was  regarded  as  related  to  the  tribe, 
but  not  specially  to  any  particular  father  or  mother. 
It  is  evident  that  under  communal  marriage — and  little 
less  so  wherever  men  had  many  wives — the  tie  between 
father  and  son  must  have  been  very  slight.  Obviously, 
however,  there  are  causes  in  oi)eration  which  always  tend 
to  strengthen  the  connection  between  the  parent  and  off- 
spring, and  especially  between  the  mother  and  her  child. 
Among  agricultu^'al  tribes,  and  under  settled  forms  of 
government,  the  ci^iefs  often  have  very  large  harems,  and 
their  importance  even  is  measured  by  the  number  of  their 
wives,  as  in  other  cases  by  that  of  their  cows  or  horses. 

Tliis  state  of  things  is  in  many  ways  very  prejudicial. 
It  checks,  of  course,  the  natural  affection  and  friendly 
intercourse  between  man  and  wife.  The  King  of  Ashantee, 
for  instance,  always  has  3,333  wives ;  but  no  man  can  love 
so  many  women,  nor  can  so  many  women  cherish  any  per- 
sonal affection  for  one  man. 

Even  among  hunting  races,  though  men  were  unable  to 
maintain  so  many  wives,  still,  as  changes  are  of  frequent 
occurrence,  the  tie  between  a  mother  and  child  is  much 

'  New  Zealand,  p,  99. 


INHKIlITANiF.    TIIUOITGII    FKMALKH. 


105 


am* 


llior 


cliiUl  to 
uiis  that 
\f  of  any 
led  will, 
peculiar 
?  foster- 
nders,  is 
itionsliip 

Dmnmnal 
lie  tribe, 
mother, 
iiid  little 
between 
>bviously, 
^ays  tend 
and  off- 
ler  cliild. 
forms   of 
ems,  and 
r  of  their 
orses. 
ejudiciah 
friendly 
shantee, 
can  love 
any  per- 


itronj^'or  than  iliat  which  binds  a  child  t()  its  father. 
ITence  we  iiiid  that  anioii;^  many  of  the  lower  races  re- 
lationship throui^li  females  is  the  [»revalent  custom,  and 
we  are  thus. able  to  understand  the  carious  practice  that 
a  man's  heirs  arc  not  his  own,  but  his  sister's  children, 

Montesfpiieu  '  r(*<|arded  relationship  thron^h  females  as 
intended  to  prevent  the  accunuilation  (>f  landed  property 
in  few  hands — an  explanation  manifestly  inap[)licable  to 
many,  nay  the  mirjority,  of  cases  in  which  tht»  custom  exists, 
nnd  the  explanation  above  suy^gested  is,  1  have  no  doubt, 
the  correct  one. 

Thus,  when  a  rich  man  dies  in  Guinea,  his  pro2)erty, 
excepting  the  armour,  descended  to  the  sister's  son, 
exjiressly,  according  to  Smith,  on  the  ground  that  he 
must  certainly  be  a  relative.^  Battel  mentions  that 
the  town  of  Longo  (Loango)  '  is  governed  by  four  chiefs, 
which  are  sons  of  the  king's  sisters ;  for  the  king's 
sons  never  come  to  be  kings.''  Quatremere  mentions  that 
*  Chez  les  Nubians,  dit  Abou  Selah,  lorsqu'un  roi  vient  a 
mourir  et  qu'il  laisse  un  fds  et  un  neveu  du  cote  de  sa  scour, 
celui-ci  monte  sur  le  trone  de  preference  a  Iheritior  naturel.'* 

In  Central  Africa,  Caillie  ^  says  that  ^  the  sovereignty 
remains  always  in  the  same  flimily,  but  the  sou  . ^ver  suc- 
ceeds his  father ;  they  choose  in  preference  a  bu.^  of  the 
king's  sister,  conceiving  that  by  this  method  the  sovereign 
power  is  more  sure  to  be  transmitted  to  one  of  the  blood 
royal ;  a  precaution  w^hicli  shows  how  little  faith  is  put 
in  the  virtue  of  the  women  of  this  country.' 

In  Northern  Africa  we  find  the  same  custom  amonir  the 
Berbers  ;  ^  and  Burton  mentions  it  as  existing  in  the  East. 

■  Esprit  dfs  Lois,  vol.  i.  p.  70.  ■•  Mem.  gc'ogr.  siir  I'Egypte  et  sur 

*  Smith's  Voyage  to  Guinea,  p.  143.  qui'lciaos  cuntrt'os  voisincs.  i'aris,  1811. 

Sec  also  Pinkertou's  Voyages,  vol.  xv.  Q noted  iu  15acliol'cu's  JMuttuireeht,  p, 

p.  417,  421,  628.     Astley's  Collection  108. 

of  Voyages,  vol.  ii.  p.  63,  206.  *  Caillie's  Travels,  vol.  i.  p.  153. 

'  I'inkcrtoij's  Voyages,  vol.  xvi.  p.  *  La  Mere,  chez  ecrtaiiis  peiiples  Ue 

3;;i.  rAutiquite,  p.  40. 

6  '        '        '  ^    , 


t 


I 


i'i 


■miir 


I' 


f\ 


i'l? 


a 


,at 


I       I     % 


lOG 


EELATIONSHIP   THROUGH    FEMALEP. 


Even  Herodotus  •  had  observed  a  ease  in  point.  *  Tho 
Lycians/  he  says,  *have  one  custom  peculiar  to  them- 
selves, in  which  they  differ  from  all  other  nations;  for 
they  take  their  name  from  their  mothers,  and  not  from 
their  fathers ;  so  that  if  anyone  asks  another  who  he  is, 
he  will  describe  himself  by  his  mother's  side,  and  reckon 
up  his  maternal  ancestry  in  the  female  line.'  Polybius 
makes  the  same  statement  as  regards  the  Locrians ;  and 
on  Etruscan  tombs  descent  is  stated  in  the  female  line. 
In  India,  the  Kasias,  the  Kocch,  r  "d  the  Nairs  have  the 
system  of  female  kinship.  Buchanan  '  tells  us  that  among 
the  Buntar  in  Tulava  a  man's  property  does  not  descend 
to  his  own  children,  but  to  those  of  his  sister.  Sir  W. 
Elliot  states  that  the  people  of  Malabar,  *  notwithstanding 
the  same  diversity  of  caste  as  in  other  provinces,  all  agree 
in  one  remarkable  usage — that  of  transmitting  property 
through  females  only.''  He  adds,  on  the  authority  of 
Lieutenant  Conner,  that  the  same  is  the  case  in  Travan- 
core,  among  all  the  castes  except  the  Ponans  and  the 
Namburi  Brahmans. 

As  Latham  states,  '  no  Nair  son  knows  his  own  father, 
and,  vice  versa,  no  Nair  father  knows  his  own  son.  What 
becomes  of  the  property  of  the  husband  ?  It  descends  to 
the  children  of  his  sisters.'  * 

Among  the  Limboos  (India),  a  tribe  near  Darjeeling,-^  the 
boys  become  the  property  of  the  father  on  his  paying  the 
mother  a  small  sum  of  money,  when  the  child  is  named, 
and  enters  his  father's  tribe :  girls  remain  with  the 
mother,  and  belong  to  her  tribe.' 

Marsden  tells  us,^  that  among  the  Battas  of  Sumatra, 


»  Clio,  173.  •  Campbell,  Trans.  Ethn.  Soc.  N.  S. 

*  Vol.  iii.  p.  16.  vol.  vii.  p.  155. 

'  Trans.  Ethn.  Soc.  1869,  p.  U9.  *  Marsdeu's    History   of   Sumatra, 

*  Descriptive  Ethnology,  vol.  ii.  p.  p.  376. 
463. 


t  r 


,  i    *: 


CAUSES    AND   WIDE    DISTRIBUTION    OP   THE    CUSTOM.       107 

*  tlie  succession  to  the  chiefsliips  does  not  go,  in  tlie  first 
instance,  to  the  son  of  the  deceased,  but  to  the  nephew 
by  a  sister  ;  and  that  the  same  extraordinary  rule,  with 
respect  to  the  property  in  general,  prevails  also  among-st 
the  Malays  of  that  part  of  the  island,  and  even  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Padang.  The  authorities  for  this  are 
various  and  unconnected  with  each  other,  but  not  suffi- 
ciently circumstantial  to  induce  me  to  admit  it  as  a  gener- 
ally established  practice.* 

Among  the  Kenaiyers  of  Cook's  Inlet,  Sir  John  Eich- 
ardson  tells  us  that  a  man's  property  descends  not  to 
his  own  children,  but  to  those  of  his  sister.*  The  same 
is  the  case  with  the  Kutchin.* 

Carver  ^  mentions  that  among  the  Hudson's  Bay  Indians 
the  children  '  are  always  distinguished  by  the  name  of  the 
mother;  and  if  a  woman  marries  several  husbands,  and 
has  issue  by  each  of  them,  they  are  all  called  after  her. 
The  reason  they  give  for  this  is,  that  as  their  offspring 
are  indebted  to  the  father  for  their  souls,  the  invisible 
part  of  their  essence,  and  to  the  mother  for  their  corporeal 
and  apparent  part,  it  is  more  rational  that  they  should  be 
distinguished  by  the  name  of  the  latter,  from  whom  they 
indubitably  derive  their  being,  than  by  that  of  the  father, 
to  which  a  doubt  might  sometimes  arise  whether  they  are 
justly  entitled.*  A  similar  rule  prevailed  in  Haiti  and 
Mexico.* 

As  regards  Polynesia,  Mariner  states  that  in  the  Friendly 
or  Tonga  Islands  *  nobility  descends  by  the  female  line, 
for  when  the  mother  is  not  a  noble,  the  children  are  not 
nobles.'^  It  would  seem,  however,  from  another  passage, 
that  these  islanders  were  passing  the  stage  of  relation- 


'  Eoat  Journej',  vol.  i.  p.  406.  *  Mvillor,  Aniericanischcn  TTrreligio- 

*  Smithsonian  I^eport,  1800,  p.  326.     ncn,  p.  167,  .039. 

»  Carver,  p.  378.     See  also  p.  259.  *  Tonga  Islands,  rol.  ii.  pp.  89,  91. 


^ifrj- 


108 


NEGLECT  OF  THE  PATERNAL  RELATION. 


I 


III 


ship  throiig-li  females  to  that  throiig-h  males.  The  exist-, 
once  of  inheritance  through  females  is  clearly  indicated  in 
the  Fijian  custom  known  as  Vasu. 

So  also  in  Western  Australia,  *  children,  of  either  sex, 
always  take  the  family  name  of  their  mother.' ' 

Tacitus,*  speaking  of  the  Germans,  says  '  children  are 
regarded  with  equal  affection  by  their  maternal  uncles 
as  by  their  fathers  ;  some  even  consider  this  as  the  more 
sacred  bond  of  consanguinity,  and  prefer  it  in  the  re- 
quisition of  hostages.'  He  adds, '  a  person's  own  children, 
however,  are  his  heirs  and  successors ;  no  wills  are  made.' 
From  this  it  would  appear  as  if  female  inheritance  had 
been  recently  and  not  universally  abandoned. 

Among  the  ancient  Jews,  Abraham  married  his  half- 
sister,  Nahor  married  his  brother's  daughter,  and  Amram 
his  father's  sister ;  this  was  permitted  because  they  were 
not  regarded  as  relations.  Tamar  also  evidently  might 
have  married  Amnon,  though  they  were  both  children 
of  David :  *  Speak  unto  the  king,'  she  said,  '  for  he  will 
not  withhold  me  from  thee ; '  for,  as  their  mothers  were 
not  the  same,  they  were  no  relations  in  the  eye  of  the  law 

Solon  also  permitted  marriage  with  sisters  on  the 
father's  side,  but  not  on  the  mother's. 

Here,  therefore,  we  have  abundant  evidence  of  the 
second  stage,  in  which  the  child  is  related  to  the  mothei , 
and  not  to  the  father ;  whence  a  man's  heir  is  his  sister's 
child,  who  is  his  nephew, — not  his  own  child,  who  is  in 
some  cases  regarded  as  no  relation  to  him  at  all* 

When,  however,  marriage  became  more  respected,  and 
the  family  affections  stronger,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  the 
rule  under  which  a  man's  property  went  to  his  sister's 
children,  w^ould  become  unpopular,  both  with  the  father, 


>  Eyre,  loc.  cit.  p.  330. 


'  De  Mor.  Germ.  xx. 


m 


RELATIONSHIP   IN   THE    MALE    LINE. 


109 


exist-" 
ted  ia 

jr  sex, 

jn  are 
uncles 
}  more 
he  re- 
Lildren, 
made.' 
ce  had 

is  half- 
Amram 
ey  were 
r  might 
;hildren 
he  will 
;rs  were 
lie  law 
on    the 

of  the 

Imothei , 

sister's 

lo  is  in 

ted,  and 

that  the 

sister's 

father, 


who  would   naturally  wish   his   children  to   inherit  his 
property,  and  equally  so  with  the  children  themselves. 

M.  Girard  Teulon,  indeed,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for 
a  very  interesting  memoir  on  this  subject,'  regards  the  first 
recognition  of  his  parental  relationship  as  an  act  of  noble 
self-devotion  on  the  part  of  some  great  genius  in  ancient 
times. 

'  Le  premier,'  he  says,  '  qui  conscntit  a  se  reconnaitre 
pere  fut  un  liomme  de  genie  et  de  coeur,  un  des  grands 
bienfaiteurs  de  Thumanite.  Prouve  en  effet  que  Tenfant 
t'appartient.  Es-tu  sur  qu'il  est  un  autre  toi-meme,  ton 
fruit?  que  tu  I'as  enfante?  ou  bien,  a  I'aide  d'une  gene- 
reuse  et  volontaire  credulite,  marches-tu,  noble  inven- 
teur,  a  la  conquete  d'un  but  superieur 9'  ^ 

Bachofen  also,  while  characterising  the  change  from 
male  to  female  relationship  as  the  '  wichtigsten  Wende- 
punkt  in  der  Geschichte  des  Geschlechts-verhiiltnisses,' 
explains  it,  as  I  cannot  but  think,  in  an  altogether  erro- 
neous manner.  He  regards  it  as  a  liberation  of  the  spirit 
from  the  deceptive  appearances  of  nature,  an  elevation  of 
human  existence  above  the  laws  of  mere  matter,  as  a 
recognition  that  the  creative  power  is  the  most  impor- 
tant, and,  in  short,  as  a  subordination  of  the  material  to 
the  spiritual  part  of  our  nature.  By  this  step,  he  says, 
'Man  durchbricht  die  Banden  des  Tellm'ismus  und 
erhebt  seinenBlick  zu  den  hohern  Regionen  des  Kosmos.'' 

This  seems  to  me,  I  confess,  a  very  curious  notion,  "and 
one  with  which  I  cannot  at  all  agree.  The  recognition 
of  paternal  responsibility  grew  up,  I  belijve,  gradually 
and  from  the  force  of  circumstances,  aided  by  the  impulses 
of  natural  affection.  On  the  other  hand,  the  adoption  of 
relationship  through  the  father's  line,  instead  of  through 


■:  :) ' 


!lv 


'  La  M4ro   cliez   certains    peuples 
do  rAntiquitA 


'  Loc.  cit.  p.  32. 

'  Bachofen,  Das  Mutterrccht,  p.  xxvii. 


''  *r^*^ 


no     CHANGE  PROM    FEMALE    TO    MALE    SYSTEM   OF    KINSHIP. 


t     ! 


■•m. 


11  ' 


the  mother's,  was  probably  effected  by  the  natural  wish 
which  every  one  would  feel  that  his  property  should  g'O  to 
his  own  children.  It  is  true  that  we  have  scarcely  any 
actual  records  of  this  change,  but  as  it  is  easy  to  see  how 
it  might  have  been  brought  about,  and  difficult  to  suppose 
that  the  opposite  step  can  ever  have  been  made  ;  as  more- 
over we  find  relationship  through  the  father  very  general, 
not  to  say  universal,  in  civilised  races,  while  the  opposite 
system  is  very  common  among  savages,  it  is  evident  that 
this  change  must  frequently  have  been  effected. 

Taking  all  these  facts  then  into  consideration,  whenever 
we  find  relationship  through  females  only,  I  think  we  may 
safely  look  upon  it  as  the  relic  of  an  ancient  barbarism. 

As  soon  as  the  change  was  made,  the  father  would  take 
the  place  held  previously  by  the  mother,  and  he,  instead 
of  she,  would  be  regarded  as  the  parent.  Hence  on  the 
birth  of  a  child,  the  father  would  naturally  be  very  careful 
what  he  did,  and  what  he  ate,  for  fear  the  child  should  be 
injured.  Thus,  I  believe,  arises  the  curious  custom  to 
which  I  referred  in  my  first  chapter. 

Relationship  to  the  father  at  first  excludes  that  to  the 
mother,  and  from  having  been  regarded  as  no  relation  to 
the  former,  children  came  to  be  looked  on  as  none  to  the 
latter. 

In  South  America,  where  it  is  customary  to  treat  captives 
well  in  every  respect,  for  a  certain  time,  giving  them  clothes, 
food,  a  wife,  &c.,  and  then  to  kill  and  eat  them,  any  children 
they  may  have  are  killed  and  eaten  also.^  In  North 
America,  as  we  have  seen,  the  system  of  relationship  through 
females  prevails  among  the  rude  races  of  the  North. 
Further  south,  as  Lafitau  long  ago  pointed  out,  we  find 
a  curious,  and  so  to  say  intermediate,  system  among  the 
Iroquois  and  Huron  s,  to  whom,  as  Mr.  Morgan  has  shown, 

'  Lafitau,  vol.  ii.  p.  307. 


rsHiP. 

■wish 

goto 

y  any 

B    llOW 

ippose 
more- 


STSTEM    OF    KINSHIP   TIIROUGn    MALES. 


in 


JllC 


ral, 
)])Osite 
it  that 


lenever 
ve  may 
;rism. 
Id  take 
instead 
on  the 
careful 
ould  be 
torn   to 

to  the 

ition  to 

to  the 

japtives 
slothes, 
Ihildren 

North 
through 

North. 

Te  find 
|)ng  the 

shown, 


^Tanih 


Noych 


Haje 


we  may  add  the  Tamils  of  India.' — A  man's  brother's 
children  are  reckoned  as  his  children,  but  his  sister's 
children  are  his  nephews  and  nieces,  while  a  woman's 
brother's  children  are  her  nephews  and  nieces,  and  her 
sister's  children  are  her  children.'* 

The  curious  system  thus  indicated  is  shown  more  fully 
in  the  following  table,  extracted  from  Mr.  Morgan's  very 
interesting  memoir : ' — 

I?id  Skin. 
r  Father,  and  also 
J  Father's  brother 

L  Father's  father's  brother's  son,  and  so  on. 
Mother,  fiid  also 
Mother's  sister 

Mother's  mother's  sister's  daughter,  and 
so  on. 
r  Brother  (elder),  and  also  .  • 

s  Father's  brother's  sou 
L  Mother's  sister's  son,  and  so  on. 
rSon 
Ilarakwuk      =      s  Brother's  son  (male  speaking) 

L  Sister's  son  (female  speaking). 

Tamils 
r  Father,  and  also 
J  Father's  brother 
""       I  Father's  father's  brother's  son,  and  so  on 
L Mother's  sister's  husband. 
'^Mother,  and  also 
Mother's  sister 
=     ^  Father's  brother'  wife 

Mother's  mother's  sister's  daughter,  and 
-.     so  on. 

r  Brother  elder,  and  also 
=      ^  Father's  brother's  son 

t  Mother's  sister's  son,  and  so  on. 
rSon 
=      s  Brother's  son  (male  speaking) 
L Sister's  son  (female  speaking). 


Takkappan 


Tay 


Tamaiyan 


Makan 


'  Proe.  American  Academy  of  Arts 
and  Sciences,  186G,  p.  456. 


^  Lafitau,  vol.  i.  p.  552. 
*  Loc.  cit.  p.  456. 


'il 


■m 


I 'A 


:ii 


" 


LLi— Ll-U—" 


112 


NEGLECT  OF  THE  MATERNAL  RELATION. 


I  ■ 


i  ' 


I  m 


'  I 


ll'l'i 


That  these  names  reallj  imj:)!}'  ideas  as  to  relationslilp, 
and  have  not  arisen  from  mere  poverty  of  language,  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  in  other  respects  their  nomencla- 
ture is  even  richer  than  ours.  Thus  they  have  different 
words  for  an  elder  brother  ond  a  younger  brother;  an 
elder  sister  and  a  younger  sister ;  so  again  the  names  for 
a  brother's  son,  a  hvother's  daughter,  a  sister's  son,  and  a 
sister's  daughter,  depend  on  whether  the  person  sjieaking 
is  a  man  or  a  woman.  Thus  they  distinguish  relation- 
ships which  we  correctly  regard  as  equivalent,  and  con- 
found others  which  are  really  distinct.  Moreover,  as  the 
languages  of  distinct  and  distant  races,  such  as  the  Iro- 
quois of  America  and  the  Tamil  of  Southern  Iiidia,  agree 
in  so  many  points,  we  cannot  dismiss  these  peculiarities  as 
mere  accidents,  but  must  regard  them  as  founded  on 
similar,  though  peculiar,  views  on  the  subject  of  relation- 
shijD. 

That  in  the  case  of  the  Iroquois  this  system  arose  from 
that  of  relationship  through  females,  and  did  not  degene- 
rate from  ours,  is  evident ;  because  in  it,  though  a  man's 
sister's  children  are  his  nephews  and  nieces,  his  sister's 
grandchildren  are  also  his  grandchildren ;  indicating  the 
existence  of  a  period  when  his  sister's  children  were  his 
children,  and,  consequently,  when  relationship  was  traced 
in  the  female  line.  A  man's  brother's  children  are  his 
children,  because  his  brother's  wives  are  also  his  wives. 

How  completely  the  idea  of  relationship  through  the 
father,  when  once  recognised,  might  replace  that  through 
the  mother,  we  may  see  in  the  very  curious  trial  of  Orestes. 
Agamemnon,  having  been  murdered  by  his  wife  Clytem- 
nestra,  was  avenged  by  their  son  Orestes,  who  kiUed  his 
mother  for  the  murder  of  his  father.  For  this  act  he  was 
prosecuted  before  the  tribunal  of  the  gods  by  the  Erinnyes^ 
whose  function  it  was  to  punish  those  who  shed  the  blood 


TUE    rRES^LXT  SYSTEM. 


113 


of  relatives.  In  liis  defence,  Orestes  asks  tlieni  why  tlioy 
(lid  not  punish  Clytemnestra  for  the  murder  of  Agamem- 
non ;  and  when  they  reply  that  marriage  does  not  con- 
stitute blood  relationship, — *  She  was  not  the  kindred  of 
the  man  whom  she  slew,' — he  pleads  that  by  the  same 
ride  they  cannot  touch  7tm,  because  a  man  is  a  relation  to 
his  father,  but  not  to  his  mother.  This  view,  which  seems 
to  us  so  unnatural,  was  supported  by  Apollo  and  Minerva, 
and  being  adopted  by  the  majority  of  the  gods,  led  to  the 
acquittal  of  Orestes. 

Hence  we  see  that  the  views  prevalent  on  relationship — 
views  by  which  the  whole  social  organisation  is  so  pro- 
foundly affected — are  by  no  means  the  same  among  diffe- 
rent races,  nor  uniform  at  the  same  historical  period.  We 
ourselves  still  confuse  affinity  and  consanguinity ;  but  into 
this  part  of  the  question  it  is  not  my  intention  to  enter  : 
the  evidence  brought  forward  in  the  preceding  pages  is, 
however,  I  think  sufficient  to  show  that  children  were  not 
in  the  earliest  times  regarded  as  related  equally  to  their 
father  and  their  mother,  but  that  the  natural  progress  of 
ideas  is,  first,  that  a  child  is  related  to  his  tribe  generally; 
secondly,  to  his  mother,  and  not  to  his  father ;  thirdly,  to 
his  father,  and  not  to  his  mother ;  lastly,  and  lastly  only, 
that  he  is  related  to  both. 


\ 


;.v 


f  a 


CHAPTER  IV. 


EELIGION. 


il       ? 


Ill         tin 
'i  *i 


ri1HE  religion  of  savages,  tliougli  of  i)eculiar  interest,  is 
J-  in  many  respects,  perhaps,  the  most  difficult  part  of 
my  whole  subject.  I  shall  endeavour  to  avoid,  as  far  as 
possible,  anything  which  might  justly  give  pain  to  any 
of  my  readers.  Many  ideas,  however,  which  ^.ave  been, 
or  are,  prevalent  on  religious  matters  are  so  utterly 
opposed  to  our  own  that  it  is  impossible  to  discuss  the 
subject  without  mentioning  some  things  which  are  very 
repugnant  to  our  feelings.  Yet,  while  savages  show  us  a 
melancholy  spectacle  of  gross  superstitions  and  ferocious 
forms  of  worship,  the  religious  mind  cannot  but  feel  a 
peculiar  satisfaction  in  tracing  up  the  gradual  evolution  of 
more  correct  ideas  and  of  nobler  creeds. 

M.  Arbrousset  quotes  the  following  toucTiing  remarlvs 
made  to  him  by  Sekesa,  a  very  respectable  Kaffir  :  *  '  Your 
tidings,'  he  said,  '  are  what  I  want ;  and  I  was  seeking 
before  I  knew  you,  as  you  shall  hear  and  judge  for  your- 
selves. Twelve  years  ago  I  went  to  feed  my  flocks.  The 
weather  was  hazy.  I  sat  down  upon  a  rock  and  asked 
myself  sorrowful  questions  ;  yes,  sorrowful,  because  I  was 
unable  to  answer  them.  "  Who  has  touched  the  stars 
with  his  hands  ?  On  what  pillars  do  they  rest  ?  "  I  asked 
myself.  **Tlie  waters  are  never  weary:  they  know  no 
other  law  than  to  flow,  without  ceasing,  from  morning  till 


"  The  Cisiitos.    Ciisiilis,  p.  239. 


rest,  is 
[)art  of 
I  far  as 
to  any 
}  been, 
utterly 
iss  the 
re  very 
)w  us  a 
rocious 
feel  a 
ition  of 

emarlcs 
*  Your 
;eekin<j 
r  vour- 
The 
1  asked 
3  I  was 
e  stars 
[  asked 
ow  no 
ing  till 


MKNTAL   INACTIVITY   OF    SA^'AGES. 


nn 


night,  and  from  night  till  morning ;  but  where  do  thoy 
sto2)P  and  who  makes  them  flow  thus'^  The  clouds  also 
come  and  go,  and  burst  in  water  over  the  earth.  Whence 
come  they  9  Who  sends  them  ?  The  diviners  certai?ily 
do  not  give  us  rain,  .  r  how  could  they  do  it  ?  and  why 
do  I  not  see  them  with  my  own  eyes  when  they  go  up  to 
heaven  to  fetch  it  ?  I  cannot  see  the  wind,  but  what  is 
it  ?  Who  brings  it,  makes  it  blow,  znd  roar  and  terrify 
us  ?  Do  I  know  how  the  corn  sprouts  ?  Yesterday  there 
was  not  a  blade  in  my  field;  to-day  I  returned  to  the 
field  and  found  some.  Who  can  have  given  to  the  earth 
the  wisdom  and  the  power  to  produce  it  ?  "  Then  I  buried 
my  face  in  both  my  hands.' 

This,  however,  was  an  exceptional  case.  As  a  general 
rule  savages  do  not  set  themselves  to  think  out  such  ques- 
tions, but  adopt  the  ideas  which  suggest  themselves  most 
naturally ;  so  that,  as  I  shall  attempt  to  show,  races  in  a 
similar  stage  of  mental  development,  however  distinct 
their  origin  may  be,  and  however  distant  the  regions  they 
inhabit,  have  very  similar  religious  conceptions.  Most  of 
those  who  have  endeavoured  to  account  for  the  various 
superstitions  of  savage  races  have  done  so  by  crediting 
them  with  vu  much  more  elaborate  system  of  ideas  than 
they  in  reality  possess.  Thus  Lafitau  supposes  that  fire  was 
worshipped  because  it  so  well  represents  *  cette  supreme 
intelligence  degagee  de  la  nature,  dont  la  puissance  est 
toujours  active.'  *  Again,  with  reference  to  idols,  he  ob- 
serves *  that  *  La  dependance  que  nous  avor;3  de  I'imagina- 
tion  et  des  sens,  ne  nous  permettant  pas  de  voir  Dieu 
autrement  qu'en  Enigme,  comme  parle  saint  Paul,  a  cause 
une  espece  de  necessite  de  nous  le  montrer  sous  des  images 
sensibles,  les-quelles  fussent  autant  de  symbolcs,  qui  nous 

*  Moeurs  des  Sauviigcs  Ar.iericains,  vol.  i.  p.  ir)2.  ^  Loc.  cit.  p.  121. 


t 


t-1 


4  i 


!l^ 


i^n 


M 


A- 


^^  iiifr 


i 

IIG 


CHARACTER   OP   RKLKJION 


1     t 


i  iii:  I 


■  (V-'l 


oleviissent  jusquVi  liii,  commo  le  portniit  iimis  roiuet  dans 
ridee  do  celui  dont  il  est  la  peinture.'  Plutarch,  a<,'ain, 
supposed  that  the  crocodile  was  worshipped  by  Ejjfjpt 
because,  having  no  tongue,  it  was  a  type  of  the  Deity 
who  made  laws  for  nature  by  his  mere  will !  Explanations, 
however,  such  as  these  are  radically  wrong. 

T  have  felt  doubtful  whether  this  chapter  should  not  be 
entitled  *  the  superstitions '  rather  than  *  the  religion '  cf 
savages  ;  but  have  preferred  the  latter,  partly  because 
many  of  the  superstitious  ideas  pass  gradually  into  nobler 
conceptions,  and  partly  from  a  reluctance  to  condemn 
any  honest  belief,  however  absurd  and  imperfect  it  may 
be.  It  must,  however,  be  admitted  that  religion,  as 
understood  by  the  lower  savage  races,  differs  essentially 
from  ours ;  nay,  it  is  not  only  different,  but  even  opposite. 
Thus  their  deities  are  evil,  not  good  ;  they  may  be  forced 
into  compliance  with  the  wishes  of  man;  they  require 
bloody,  and  rejoice  in  human,  sacrifices  ;  they  are  mortal, 
not- immortal;  a  part  of,  not  the  author  of  nature;  they 
are  to  be  approached  by  dances  rather  than  by  prayers ; 
and  often  approve  what  we  call  vice,  rather  than  what  we 
esteem  as  virtue. 

In  fact,  the  so-called  religion  of  the  lower  races  bears 
somewhat  the  same  relation  to  religion  in  its  higher  forms 
that  astrology  does  to  astronomy,  or  alchemy  to  chemistry. 
Astronomy  is  derived  from  aj^trology,  yet  their  spirit  is 
in  entire  opposition  ;  and  we  shall  find  the  same  difference 
between  the  religions  of  backward  and  of  advanced  races. 
We  reg.ard  the  Deity  as  good ;  they  look  npon  him  as 
evil ;  we  submit  ourselves  to  him ;  they  endeavour  to 
obtain  the  control  of  him ;  we  feel  the  necessity  of  ac- 
counting for  the  blessings  by  which  we  are  surrounded ; 
they  think  the  blessings  come  of  themselves,  and  attribute 
all  evil  to  the  interference  of  malignant  beings. 


AMONG    THE    LOWKR   liAC'F.S   OP   MAN.    • 


117 


dans 
if^jiin, 

Deity 

tioTis, 

lot  be 

m'  cf 

jcause 

nobler 

iclemn 

t  may 

)n,   as 

ntially 

posite. 

forced 

'eqiiire 

nortal, 

;  they 

•ayers ; 

lat  Ave 

bears 

forms 

listry. 

^irit  is 

Terence 

races. 

lim  as 

)ur   to 

I of  ac- 

mded ; 

tribute 


These  characteristics  are  not  exceptional  and  rare.     On 
the  contrary  I  shall  attempt  to  show  that,  thon<j^h  the  reli- 
rrions  of  the  lower  races  have  received  ditt'erent  names, 
tliey  af^ree  in  their  general  characteristics,  and  are  bnt 
l^hases  of  one  seqnence,  having  the  same  origin,  and  pass- 
ing through    similar,  if  not  identical,  stages.     This  will 
explain  the  great   similarities  which  occur  in  the  most 
distinct  and  distant  races,  which  have  puzzled  many  eth- 
nologists, and  in  some  cases  led  them  to  utterly  untenable 
tlieories.     Thus  even  Robertson,  though  in  many  respects 
he  held  very  correct  views  as  to  the  religious  condition 
of  savages,  remarks  that  sun-worship  prevailed  among 
the  Natchez  and  the  Persians,  and  observes,'   *  this  sur- 
prising coincidence  in  sentiment  between  two  nations  in 
such  different  states  of  improvement  is  one  of  the  many 
singular   and  unaccountable   circumstances  which  occur 
in  the  history  of  human  affairs.' 

Although  however  we  find  the  most  remarkable  coin- 
cidences between  the  religions  of  distinct  races,  one  of 
the  peculiar  difficulties  in  the  study  of  religion  arises  from 
the  fact  that,  while  each  nation  has  generally  but  one 
language,  we  may  almost  say  that  in  religious  matters, 
q^iot  homines  tot  sententice ;  no  two  men  having  exactly  the 
same  views,  however  much  they  may  wish  to  agree. 

Many  travellers  have  pointed  out  this  difficulty.  Thus 
Captain  Cool.,  speaking  of  the  South  Sea  Islanders,  says  : 
'  Of  the  religion  *  of  these  people  we  were  not  able  to  ac- 
quire any  clear  and  consistent  knowledge ;  we  found  it 
like  the  religion  of  most  other  countries — involved  in 
mystery  and  perplexed  with  apparent  inconsistencies.' 
Many  also  of  those  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  informa- 
tion on  the  subject,  fully  expecting  to  find  among  savages 

'  History  of  America,  book  iv.   p.  '  IT.iwkcsvorth's   Voyngcs,  vol.   ii. 

127.  p  237. 


I 


I 


'I 


i 


t 


j  !«. 


t» 


'•>  n 


If 


«r 


[ 


118 


DIFFICUI/rV   OF    TIIK    SUbJECT. 


ideas  like  our  own,  obscured  only  by  errors  and  supersti- 
tion", have  put  leadinj^  questions,  and  thus  got  niisleadinj^ 
answers.  Wo  constantly  hear,  for  instance,  of  a  Devil, 
but  in  fact  no  S2)iritual  beinj?  in  the  niytholoj^y  of  any 
Bavago  race  possesses  the  characteristics  of  Satan.  Again, 
it  is  often  very  difficult  to  determine  in  what  sense  an 
object  is  worshipped.  A  mountain,  or  a  river,  for  instance, 
may  be  held  sacred  either  as  an  actual  Deity  or  merely 
as  his  abode ;  and  in  the  same  way  a  statue  may  be 
actually  worshipped  as  a  god,  or  merely  reverenced  as 
representing  the  Divinity. 

To  a  great  extent,  moreover,  these  difficulties  arise  from 
the  fact  that  when  Man,  either  by  natural  progress  or  the 
influence  of  a  more  advanced  race,  rises  to  the  conception 
of  a  higher  religion,  he  still  retains  his  old  beliefs,  which 
long  linger  on,  side  by  side  with,  and  yet  in  utter  ojDposi- 
tion  to,  the  higher  creed.  The  new  and  more  powerful 
Spirit  is  an  addition  to  the  old  Pantheon,  and  diminishes 
the  importance  of  the  older  deities ;  gradually  the  wor- 
ship of  the  latter  sinks  in  the  social  scale,  and  becomes 
confined  to  the  ignorant  and  the  young.  Thus  a  belief  in 
witchcraft  still  flourishes  among  our  agricultural  labourers 
and  the  lowest  classes  in  our  great  cities,  and  the  deities 
of  our  ancestors  survive  in  the  nursery  tales  of  our  children. 
We  must  therefore  expect  to  find  in  each  race  traces — 
nay,  more  than  traces,  of  lower  religions.  Even  if  this 
were  not  the  case  we  should  still  be  met  by  the  difficulty 
that  there  are  few  really  sharp  lines  in  religious  systems. 
It  might  be  supposed  that  a  belief  in  the  immortality  of 
the  soul,  or  in  the  efficacy  of  sacrifices,  would  give  us  good 
lines  of  division ;  but  it  is  not  so :  these  and  many  other 
ideas  rise  gradually,  and  even  often  appear  at  first  in  a 
form  very  different  from  that  which  they  ultimately 
assume. 


CLASSIFICATION    OP    THE    LOWKIl    Ur.IilGIONS. 


WO 


Illtliorto  it  litis  boon  usual  to  classify  roli^'ions  acoord- 
iii^  to  the  natun'of  tlio  <)l)j(»c't  worsliipiu'd  :  IVtichiHiii,  for 
instance,  beiii^  the  worship  of  inaiiiniate  objects,  Sabreisni 
that  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  The  true  test,  however,  seems 
to  me  to  be  the  estimate  in  which  the  Deity  is  held.  The 
first  gfreat  stajjes  in  reliy;ious  thought  may,  I  think,  be 
regarded  as — 

AtheiHm  ;  understanding  by  this  term  not  a  denial  of 
the  existence  of  a  Deity,  but  an  absence  of  any  delinite 
ideas  on  the  subject. 

Fcik'hism ;  the  stage  in  which  man  supposes  he  can 
force  the  Deity  to  comply  with  his  desires. 

Nature-worship,  or  Totemum  ;  in  which  natural  objects, 
trees,  lakes,  stones,  animals,  &c.  are  worshipped. 

Shamanixm  ;  in  which  the  superior  deities  are  far  more 
powerful  than  man,  and  of  a  different  nature.  Their 
place  of  abode  also  is  far  away,  and  accessible  only  to 
Shamans. 

Idolatry,  or  Anthropomorphism  ;  in  which  the  gods  take 
still  more  completely  the  nature  of  men,  being,  however, 
more  powerful.  They  are  still  amenable  to  persuasion  ; 
they  are  a  part  of  nature,  and  not  creators.  They  are 
represented  by  images  or  idols. 

In  the  next  stage  the  Deity  is  regarded  as  the  author, 
not  merely  a  part,  of  nature.  lie  becomes  for  the  first 
time  a  really  supernatural  being. 

The  last  stage  to  which  I  will  refer  is  that  in  which 
morality  is  associated  with  religion. 

Since  the  above  was  written  my  attention  was  called  by 
De  Brosse's  *  Culte  des  Dieux  Fetiches '  to  a  passage  in 
Sanchoniatho,  quoted  by  Eusebius.  From  his  description 
of  the  first  thirteen  generations  of  men  I  extract  the 
following  passages : — 

Generation  1. — The  *  first  men  consecrated  the    plants 


i  i 


i  I' 


^»ii 


>i  W 


m 


i 


1 1 


il 


; 


\   M 


ill 


120    SEQUENCE  OF  EELIGIONS  ACCORDING  TO  SANCHONIATHO. 


1:1  m 


sliooting  out  of  the  earth,  and  jiidgfed  them  gods,  and 
worshipped  them,  upon  whom  they  themselves  lived.' 

Gen.  2. — The  second  generation  of  men  *were  called 
Genus  and  Genoa,  and  dwelt  in  Phoenicia  ;  but  when  great 
droughts  came,  they  stretched  their  hands  up  to  heaven 
towards  the  sun,  for  him  they  thought  the  only  Lord  of 
Heaven.' 

Gen.  3. — Afterwards  other  mortal  issue  was  begotten, 
whose  names  were  Plios,  Pur,  and  Phlox  (i.e.  Light,  Fire, 
and  Flame).  These  found  out  the  way  of  generating  fire 
by  the  rubbing  of  pieces  of  wood  against  each  other,  and 
taught  men  the  use  thereof. 

Gen.  4. — The  fourth  generation  consists  of  giants. 

Gen.  5. — With  reference  to  the  fifth  he  mentions  the 
existence  of  communal  marriage,  and  that  Usous  *  con- 
secrated two  pillars  to  Fire  and  Wind,  and  bowed  down  to 
them,  and  poured  out  to  them  the  blood  of  such  wild 
beasts  as  had  been  caught  in  hunting.' 

Gen,  6. — Hunting  and  fishing  are  invented ;  which 
seems  rather  inconsistent  with  the  preceding  statement. 

Gen.  7. — Chrysor,  whom  he  affirms  to  be  Vulcan, 
discovered  iron  and  the  art  of  forging.  *  Wherefore  he 
also  was  worshipped  after  his  death  for  a  god,  and  they 
called  him  Diamichius  (or  Zeus  Michius).' 

Gen.  8. — Pottery  was  discovered. 

Gen.  9. — "Now  comes  Agrus,  '  who  had  a  much- 
worshipped  statue,  and  a  temple  carried  about  by  one  or 
more  yoke  of  oxen  in  Phoenicia. 

Gen.  10. — Yillages  were  formed,  and  men  kept  flocks. 

Gen.  11.—  >salt  was  discovered. 

Gen.  12. — Taautus  or  Hermes  discovered  letters.  The 
Cabiri  belong  to  this  generation. 

Thus  then  we  find  mentioned  in  order  the  worship  of 
plants,  heavenly  bodies,  pillars,  and  men  ;  later  still  comes 


RELIGIOUS    CONDITION    OF    THE    LOWEST    EACES. 


121 


Idolatry  coupled  with  Temples.  It  will  be  observed  tliat 
he  makes  no  special  mention  of  Shamanism,  and  that  ho 
regards  the  worship  of  plants  as  aboriginal. 

The  opinion  that  religion  is  general  and  universal  has 
been  entertained  by  many  high  authorities.  Yet  it  is  op- 
posed to  the  evidence  of  numerous  trustworthy  observers. 
Sailors,  traders,  and  philosophers,  Roman  Catholic  priests 
and  Protestant  missionaries,  in  ancient  and  in  modern 
times,  in  every  part  of  the  globe,  have  concurred  in  stating 
that  there  are  races  of  men  altogether  devoid  of  religion. 
The  case  is  the  stronger  because  in  several  instances  the 
fact  has  greatly  surprised  him  who  records  it,  and  has  been 
entirely  in  opposition  to  all  his  preconceived  views.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  must  ^e  confessed  that  in  some  cases 
travellers  denied  the  existence  of  a  religion  merely  because 
the  tenets  were  unlike  ours.  The  question  as  to  the  general 
existence  of  religion  among  men  is,  indeed,  to  a  great  ex- 
tent a  matter  of  definition.  If  the  mere  sensation  of  fear, 
and  the  recognition  that  there  are  probably  other  beings 
more  powerful  than  man,  are  sufficient  alone  to  constitute 
a  religion,  then  we  must,  I  think,  admit  that  religion  is 
general  to  the  human  race.  But  when  a  child  dreads  the 
darkness,  and  shrinks  from  a  lightless  room,  we  never 
regard  that  as  an  evidence  of  religion.  Moreover,  if  this 
definition  be  adoi^ted,  we  cannot  longer  regard  religion  as 
peculiar  to  man.  We  must  admit  that  the  feeling  of  a 
dog  or  a  horse  towards  its  master  is  of  the  same  character ; 
and  the  baying  of  a  dog  to  the  moon  is  as  much  an  act  of 
worship  as  some  ceremonies  which  have  been  so  described 
by  travellers. 

In  '  Prehistoric  Times,' '  I  have  quoted  the  following 
writers  as  witnesses  to  the  existence  of  tribes  without 

'  Prrliistoric  Times,  2nd  edition,  p.  5G4, 


i      11 


V    1 

If;     I 


ft'ii|!» 


m^^ 


til 


,    V. 


it 


'If 


1i    SI 


II 


li 


i 


I. 


122 


ABSENCE    OF   RELIGION. 


religion.  For  some  of  tlie  Eoquimaux  tribes,  Captain 
Ross;'  for  some  of  the  Canadians,  Hearne;  for  the  Cali- 
fornians,  Baegert,  who  lived  among  them  seventeen  years, 
and  La  Perouse ;  for  many  of  the  Brazilian  tribes,  Spix 
and  Martins,  Bates  and  Wallace ;  for  Paraguay,  Dobritz- 
hoffer ;  for  some  of  the  Polynesians,  Williams'  Missionary 
Enterprises,  the  Voj'^age  of  the  Novara,  and  Dieffenbach ; 
for  Damood  Island  (north  of  Australia),  Jukes  (Vo3^age 
of  the  Fly) ;  for  the  Pellew  Islands,  Wilson;  for  the  Aru 
Islands,  Wallace ;  for  the  Andamaners,  Mouatt ;  for 
certain  Uih^s  of  Hindostan,  Hooker  and  Shortt ;  for  some 
of  the  eastern  African  nations.  Burton  and  Grant ;  for  the 
Bachapin  Kaffirs,  Burchell ;  and  for  the  Hottentots,  Le 
Vaillant.     I  will  here  only  give  a  few  instances. 

*  It  is  evident,'  says  M.  Bik,^  *  that  the  Arafuras  of 
Vorkay  (one  of  the  Southern  Aruw)  possess  no  religion 
whatever.  ...  Of  the  immortality  of  the  soul  they  have 
not  the  least  conception.  To  all  my  enquiries  on  this 
subject  they  answered,  **  No  Arafura  has  ever  returned  to 
us  after  death,  therefore  we  know  nothing  of  a  future 
state,  and  this  is  the  first  time  we  have  heard  of  it."  Their 
idea  was,  Mati,  Mati  sudah  (When  you  are  dead  there  is 
an  end  of  you).  Neither  have  they  any  notion  of  the 
creation  of  the  world.  They  only  answered  "  None  of  us 
are  aware  of  this ;  we  have  never  heard  anything  about  it, 
and  therefore  do  not  know  who  has  done  it  all.'**  To  con- 
vince myself  more  fully  respecting  their  want  of  knowledge 
of  a  Supreme  Being,  I  demanded  of  them  on  whom  they 
called  for  help  in  their  need,  when,  far  from  their  homes, 
engaged  in  the  trepang  fishery,  their  vessels  were  over- 
taken by  violent  tempests,  and  no  human  power  could 
save  them,  their  wives  and  children,  from  destruction.  The 

'  See  also  Franklin's  Journey  to  the         *  Quoted  in  Kolffs  Voyages  of  the 
Polar  Sea,  vol.  ii.  p.  26i').  Dourga,  p.  169. 


ABSENCE    OF    RELIGION. 


123 


of 


eldest  among  them,  after  having  consulted  the  others, 
answered  that  they  knew  not  on  whom  they  could  call  for 
assistance,  but  begged  me,  if  I  knew,  to  be  so  good  as  to 
inform  them.' 

*  The  wilder  Bedouins,'*  says  Burton, '  will  enquire  where 
Allah  is  to  be  found  :  when  asked  the  object  of  the  ques- 
tion, they  reply,  "  If  the  Eesa  could  but  catch  him  they 
would  spear  him  upon  the  spot, — who  but  he  lays  waste 
their  homes  and  kills  their  cattle  and  wives  ?  "  Yet,  con- 
joined to  this  truly  savage  incapability  of  conceiving  the 
idea  of  a  Supreme  Being,  they  believe  in  the  most  ridicu- 
lous exaggerations :  many  will  not  affront  a  common 
pilgrim,  for  fear  of  being  killed  by  a  glance  or  a  word.' 

Burton  also  considers  that  atheism  is  *the  natural 
condition  of  the  savage  and  uninstructed  mind,  the  night 
of  spiritual  existence,  which  disappears  before  the  dawn  of 
a  belief  in  things  unseen.  A  Creator  is  to  creation  what 
the  cause  of  any  event  in  life  is  to  its  effect ;  those  familiar 
to  the  sequence  will  hardly  credit  its  absence  from  the 
minds  of  others.'  ^ 

Among  the  Koossa  Kaffirs,  Lichtenstein'  affirms  that 
'  there  is  no  appearance  of  any  religious  worship  what- 
ever.' 

*  It  might  be  the  proper  time  now,'  says  Father  Baegert, 
*  to  speak  of  the  form  of  government  and  the  religion  of  the 
Califurnians  previous  to  their  conversion  to  Christianity  ; 
but  neither  the  one  nor  the  other  existed  among  them. 
They  had  no  magistrates,  no  police,  and  no  laws ;  idols, 
temples,  religious  worship  or  ceremonies,  were  unknown 
to  them,  and  they  neither  believed  in  the  true  and  only 
God,  nor  adored  false  deities.  ...  I  made  diligent  en- 
quiries,  among  those   with  whom  I  lived,  to   ascertain 


'  First  Footsteps   in   East  Africa, 


p.  52. 


*  Abbeokuta,  vol.  i.  p.  179. 
'  Lichtenstein,  vol.  i.  p.  2o3. 


.J 


JH; 


^i 


u 


!!■   i"];. 


<i^:ij; 


'  il 


I'  < 


it    I 


124 


ABSENCE   OF   RELIOIOX. 


"wl^i  tlier  they  liad  an}  conception  of  God,  a  future  life  and 
their  own  souls,  but  I  never  could  discover  the  slightest 
trace  of  such  a  knowledge.  Their  language  has  no  words 
for  "  God  "  and  "  soul."  '  ' 

Although,  as  Caj)tain  John  Smith''  quaintly  put  it, 
there  was  *  in  Virginia  no  place  discovered  to  be  so  savage 
in  which  they  had  not  a  religion,  Deere,  and  bows  and 
arrows,'  still,  the  ruder  tribes  in  the  far  North,  according 
to  tlie  testimony  of  Hearne,  who  knew  them  intimately, 
had  no  religion. 

Several  tribes,  says  Robertson,  *  '  have  been  discovered 
in  America,  which  have  no  idea  whatever  of  a  Supreme 
Being,  and  no  rites  of  religious  worship.  Inattentive  to 
that  magnificent  spectacle  of  beauty  and  order  presented 
to  their  view,  unaccustomed  to  reflect  either  upon  what 
they  themselves  are,  or  to  enquire  who  is  the  author  of 
their  existence,  men,  in  their  savage  state,  pass  their  days 
like  the  animals  round  them,  without  knowledge  or  vener- 
ation of  any  superior  power.  Some  rude  tribes  have  not 
in  their  language  any  name  for  the  Deity,  nor  have  the 
most  accurate  observers  been  able  to  discover  any  practice 
or  institution  which  seemed  to  imply  that  they  recognised 
his  authority,  or  were  solicitous  to  obtain  his  favour.' 

In  the  face  of  such  a  crowd  of  witnesses  it  may  at  first 
sight  seem  extraordinary  that  there  can  still  be  any 
difference  of  opinion  on  the  subject.  This,  however,  arises 
partly  from  th3  fact  that  the  term  *Eeligion'  has  not 
always  been  used  in  the  same  sense,  and  partly  from  a 
belief  that,  as  has  no  doubt  happened  in  several  cases, 
travellers  may,  from  ignorance  of  the  language,  or  from 
shortness  of  residence,  have  overlooked  a  religion  which 
really  existed.  ' 


^  33aegert.      Smithsonian      Trans., 
1863-4,  r,.  390. 

^  Voyiigcs  in  Virginia,  p.  138. 


'  History  of  America,  book   iv.  p. 
122. 


RUDIMENTARY   RELIGION. 


12; 


»        'J 


fe  and 
o-litest 
words 

jut  it, 
savage 
vs  and 
or  ding 
nately, 

;overed 
ipreme 
tive  to 
isented 
a  what 
bhor  of 
iir  days 
vener- 
Lve  not 
Lve  the 
)ractice 
Dgnised 
r.' 

at  first 
be  any 
■,  arises 
las  not 
from  a 
cases, 
?  from 
which 


ok   iv.  p. 


For  instance,  the  first  describers  of  Tahiti  asserted  that 
the  natives  had  no  religion,  which  subsequently  proved  to 
be  a  complete  mistake ;  and  several  other  similar  cases 
might  be  quoted.  As  regards  the  lowest  races  of  men,  how- 
ever, it  seems  to  me,  even  a  priori,  very  difficult  to  suppose 
that  a  people  so  backward  as  to  be  unable  to  count  their 
own  fingers  should  be  sufficiently  advanced  in  their  intellec- 
tual conceptions  as  to  have  any  system  of  belief  worthy  of 
the  name  of  a  religion. 

We  shall,  however,  obtain  a  clearer  view  of  the  ques- 
tion if  we  consider  the  superstitions  of  those  races  which 
have  a  rudimentary  religion,  and  endeavour  to  trnce  these 
ideas  up  into  a  more  developed  condition. 

Here  again  we  shall  perhaps  be  met  by  the  doubt 
whether  travellers  have  correctly  understood  the  accounts 
given  to  them.  In  many  cases,  however,  when  the  narra- 
tor had  lived  for  months,  or  years,  among  those  whom  he 
was  describing,  we  need  certainly  feel  no  suspicion,  and  in 
otliers  we  shall  obtain  a  satisfactory  result  by  comparing 
too-ether  the  statements  of  dififeront  observers  and  usiiij]: 
them  as  a  check  one  upon  the  other. 

The  religious  theories  of  savages  are  certainly  not  the 
result  of  deep  thought,  nor  must  they  be  regarded  as  con- 
stituting any  elaborate  or  continuous  theory.  A  Zulu 
candidly  said  to  Mr.  Callaway,^  '  Our  knowledge  does  not 
urge  us  to  search  out  the  roots  of  it ;  we  do  not  try  to  see 
them ;  if  anyone  thinks  ever  so  little,  he  soon  gives  it  up, 
and  passes  on  to  what  he  sees  with  his  eyes ;  and  he  does 
not  understand  the  real  state  of  even  what  he  sees.' 
Dulaure  truly  observes,  that  the  savage  *  aime  mieux 
soumettre  sa  raison,  souvent  revoltee,  a  ce  que  ses  institu- 
tions ont  de  plus  absurde,  que  se  livrer  a  Texamen,  par- 
ceque  ce  travail  est  ton joius  penible  pour  celui  qui  ne  s'y 

'  The  Religious  System  of  the  Amazuhi,  p.  22. 


'is; 


I! 


I ;  I 


;f^ 


12G 


RELIGIOUS    IDEAS    AS    SUGGESTED   BY   DREAMS. 


11 


est  point  exerce.'  With  this  statement  I  entirely  concur, 
and  I  believe  that  tliror.gh  all  the  various  religious  systems 
of  the  lower  races  may  be  traced  a  natural  and  unconscious 
process  of  development. 

Dreams  are  intimately  associated  with  the  lower  forms  of 
relijjion.  To  the  savage  they  have  a  reality  and  an  import- 
ance which  we  can  scarcely  appreciate.  During  sleep  the 
spirit  seems  to  desert  the  body ;  and  as  in  dreams  we  visit 
other  localities  and  eveii  other  worlds,  living  as  it  were  a 
separate  and  different  life,  the  two  phenomena  are  not 
imnaturally  regarded  as  the  compleni^ents  of  one  another. 
Hence  the  savage  considers  the  events  in  his  dreams  to  be 
as  real  as  those  of  his  waking  hours,  and  hence  he  natu- 
rally feels  that  he  has  a  spirit  which  can  quit  the  body. 
*  Dreams,'  says  Burton,  '  according  to  the  Yorubans  and 
to  many  of  our  fetichists,  are  not  an  irregular  action 
and  partial  activity  of  the  brain,  but  so  many  revelations 
brought  by  the  manes  of  the  departed.'  ^  So  strong 
was  the  North  American  faith  in  dreams  that  on  one 
occasion,  Avhen  an  Indian  dreamt  he  was  taken  captive, 
he  induced  his  friends  to  make  a  mock  attack  on  him,  to 
bind  him  and  treat  him  as  a  captive,  actually  submitting 
to  a  considerable  amount  of  torture,  in  the  hope  thus  to 
fulfil  his  dream.^  The  Greenlanders  ^  also  believe  in  the 
reality  of  dreams,  and  think  that  at  night  they  go  hunting, 
visiting,  courting,  and  so  on.  It  is  of  course  obvious  that 
the  body  takes  no  part  in  these  nocturnal  adventures,  and 
hence  it  is  natural  to  conclude  that  they  have  a  spirit 
wdnch  can  quit  the  body. 

In  Madagascar^  'the  people  throughout  the  whole  island 
pay  a  religious  regard  to  dreams,  and  imagine  that  their 


'  Histoire  des  Cultes,  vol.  i.  p.  22. 
^  Abbeokuta,  vol.  i.  p.  204. 
2  Lafitau,  loc.  cit.  vol.  i.  p.  -366. 


*  Crantz.  loc.  cit.  vol.  i.  p.  200. 

*  The  Adventures  of  Robert  Diury, 
p.  171.     See  also  pp.  176,  272. 


3ncur, 
'Stems 
scious 

rms  of 
iiport- 
ep  the 
'8  visit 
were  a 
ire  not 
tiother. 
,s  to  be 
;  natu- 
3  body, 
ms  and 
'  action 
elations 

strong 
on  one 
captive, 

lim,  to 
mitting 
thus  to 
e  in  the 
Lunting, 
)us  that 

es,  and 

a  spirit 

e  island 
lat  their 

.  200. 
)ert  Driiry, 
t72. 


RELIGIOUS    IDEAS    AS   SUGGESTED   BY   DREAMS.         127 

good  demons  (for  I  cannot  tell  what  other  name  to  give 
tlieir  inferior  deities,  which,  as  they  say,  attend  on  their 
owleys,)  tell  them  in  their  dreams  what  ought  to  be  done, 
or  warn  them  of  what  ought  to  be  avoided.' 

Lastly,  when  they  dream  of  their  departed  friends  or 
relatives,  savages  firmly  believe  themselves  to  be  visited 
by  their  spirits,  and  hence  believe,  not  indeed  in  the  im- 
mortality of  the  soul,  but  in  its  survival  of  the  body. 
Thus  the  Manganjas,  South  Africa,  expressly  ground  their 
belief  in  a  future  life  on  the  fact  that  their  friends  visit 
them  in  their  sleep.  Again,  savages  are  rarely  ill ;  their 
sufferings  generally  arise  from  wounds ;  their  deaths  are 
generally  violent.  As  an  external  injury  received  in  war 
causes  pain,  so  when  they  suffer  internally  they  attribute 
it  to  some  internal  enemy.  Hence  whence  the  Australian, 
perhaps  after  too  heavy  a  meal,  has  his  slumbers  disturbed, 
he  never  doubts  the  reality  of  what  is  passing,  but  con- 
siders that  he  is  attacked  by  some  being  whom  his  com- 
panions cannot  see. 

This  is  well  illustrated  in  the  following  passage  from, 
the  *  United  States  Exploring  Expedition  : ' '  *  Sometimes, 
when  the  Australians  are  asleep,  Koin  makes  his  appear- 
ance, seizes  upon  one  of  them  and  carries  him  off.  The 
person  seized  endeavours  in  vain  to  cry  out,  being  almost 
strangled.  At  daylight,  however,-  he  disappears,  and  the 
man  finds  himself  conveyed  safely  to  his  own  fireside. 
From  this  it  would  appear  that  the  demon  is  here  a  sort 
of  personification  of  the  night-mare — a  visitation  to  which 
the  natives,  from  their  habits  of  gorging  themselves  to 
the  utmost  when  they  obtain  a  supply  of  food,  must  be 
very  subject.' 

Speaking  of  the  North-Western  Americans,  Mr.  Sproat 

'  Loc.  cit.  vol.  vi.  p.  110. 


'.| 


i 


r 


1,' 


!  : 
i- 


128 


THE   SHADOW. 


■i  i 


n 


says :  *  *  The  apparition  of  ghosts  is  especially  an  occasion 
on  wliicli  the  services  of  the  sorcerers,  the  old  women,  and 
all  the  friends  of  the  ghost-seer  are  in  great  request. 
Owing  to  the  quantity  of  indigestible  food  eaten  by  the 
natives,  they  often  dream  that  they  are  visited  by  ghosts. 
After  a  supper  of  blubber,  followed  by  one  of  the  long 
talks  about  departed  friends,  which  take  place  round  the 
fire,  some  nervous  and  timid  person  may  fancy,  in  the 
night  time,  that  he  sees  a  ghost.' 

In  some  cases  the  belief  that  man  possesses  a  spirit 
seems  to  have  been  suggested  by  the  shadow.  Thus, 
among  the  Fijian s,*  '  some  speak  of  man  as  having  two 
spirits.  His  shadow  is  called  "  the  dark  spirit,"  which 
they  say  goes  to  Hades.  The  other  is  his  likeness  reflected 
in  water  or  a  looking-glass,  and  is  supposed  to  stay  near 
the  place  in  which  a  man  dies.  Probably  this  doctrine  of 
shadows  has  to  do  with  the  notion  of  inanimate  objects 
having  s^^irits.  I  once  i^laced  a  good-looking  native 
suddenly  before  a  mirror.  He  stood  delighted.  "  Now," 
said  he  softly,  "  I  can  see  into  the  world  of  spirits."  * 

The  North  American  Indians  also  consider  a  man's 
shadow  as  his  soul  or  life.  '  I  have,'  says  Tanner,  *  heard 
them  reproach  a  sick  person  for  what  they  considered  im- 
prudent exposure  in  convalescence,  telling  him  that  his 
shadow  was  not  well  settled  down  in  him.'  ^ 

The  natives  of  Benin  '  call  a  man's  shadow  his  passadoor, 
or  conductor,  and  believe  it  will  witness  if  he  lived  well  or 
ill.  If  well,  he  is  raised  to  great  happiness  and  dignity  in 
the  place  before  mentioned ;  if  ill,  he  is  to  perish  with 
hunger  and  poverty.'  "*     They  are  indeed  a  most  super- 

'  Scenes  and  Studies  of  Savage  Life,  *  Astley's  Collection  of  Voyages,  vol. 

p.  172.  iii.  p.  99.     Pinkerton,  vol.  xvi.  p.  631. 

2  Williams'  Fiji  and   the    Fijians,  See   also   Callaway  On  the  Eeligious 

vol.  i.  p.  241.  System  of  the  Amazulu,  p.  91. 

•  Tanner's  Captivity,  p.  291. 


SPITIITS    AT    FIRST   REGAllDED    AS    EVIL. 


129 


icasion 
)n,  and 
jquest. 
by  the 
jhosts. 
e  long 
md  the 
in  the 

L  spirit 
Thus, 
[■\<X  two 
which 
Bliected 
ay  near 
trine  of 
objects 
native 
Now," 

man's 
heard 
ired  im- 
lat  his 

sadoor, 
well  or 
gnity  in 
sh  witli 
super- 

lyages,  vol. 
vi.  p.  631. 
Religious 


stitious  race ;  and  Lander  mentions  a  case  in  which  an 
echo  w^as  taken  for  the  voice  of  a  Fetich.' 

Thunder,  also,  was  often  regarded  either  as  an  actual 
deity,  or  as  a  heavenly  voice.  *  One  night,'  says  Tanner, 
*  Picheto  (a  North  American  chief)  becoming  much  alarmed 
at  the  violence  of  the  storm,  got  up  and  offered  some  tobacco 
to  the  thunder,  entreating  it  to  stop.'  ^ 

I  have  already  mentioned  that  savages  almost  always 
regard  spirits  as  evil  beings.  We  can,  I  think,  easily 
understand  why  this  should  be.  Amongst  the  very  lowest 
races  every  other  ma  i — amongst  those  slightly  more  ad- 
vanced, every  man  of  a  different  tribe,  is  regarded  as 
naturally,  and  almost  necessarily  hostile.  A  stranger 
is  synonymous  with  an  enemy,  and  a  spirit  is  but  a 
member  of  an  invisible  tribe. 

The  Hottentots,  according  to  Thunberg,  have  very 
vague  ideas  about  a  good  Deity.  *  They  have  much 
clearer  notions  about  an  evil  spirit,  whom  they  fear,  be- 
lieving him  to  be  the  occasion  of  sickness,  death,  thunder, 
and  every  calamity  that  befalls  them.'  ^  The  Bechuanas 
attribute  all  evil  to  an  invisible  god,  whom  they  call 
Murimo,  and  *  never  hesitate  to  show  their  indignation 
at  any  ill  experienced,  or  any  wish  unaccomplished,  by 
the  most  bitter  curses.  They  have  no  religious  worship, 
and  could  never  be  persuaded  by  the  missionaries  that 
this  was  a  thing  displeasing  to  God.'  * 

The  Abipones  of  South  America,  so  well  described  by 
Dobritzhoffer,  had  some  vague  notions  of  an  evil  spirit, 
but  none  of  a  good  one.^    The  Coroados "  of  Brazil '  acknow-^ 


^  Niger  Expoclition,  vol.  iii.  p.  242.  3G6. 

*  Tanner's  Narrative  of  a  Captivity         *  Lichtonstoin,  vol.  ii.  p.  3^2. 
among  the  Indians,  p.  136.  *  Dobritzhoffor,  loc.  cU.  vol.  ii.  pp. 

*  Thuuberg.    Pinkcrton's   Voyages,  35,  64. 

vol.  XV.  p.    142.     Astlcy,  loc.   cU.  p.         «  Spi?  and  Martins,  vol.  ii.  p,  243. 


'  \ 


I  ' 


IIJO 


SPIRITS    REnARDED    AS    EVIL. 


■if' 


ft  m 


ledge  no  cause  of  good,  or  no  God,  but  only  an  evil  prin- 
ciple, wliich  ....  loads  liiin  astray,  vexes  him,  brings 
liiin  into  difficulty  and  danger,  and  even  kills  him.* 

In  Virginia  and  Florida  the  evil  -spirit  was  worshipped 
and  not  the  good,  because  the  former  might  be  proj^itiated, 
while  the  latter  was  sure  to  do  all  the  good  he  could.* 
So  also  the  *  Oemis '  of  the  West  Indian  Islands  were 
regarded  as  evil,  and  *  reputed  to  be  the  authors  of  every 
calamity  that  affects  the  human  race.'''  The  Redskin, 
says  Carver,'  *  lives  in  continual  apprehension  of  the 
nnkind  attacks  of  spirits,  and  to  avert  them  has  recourse 
to  charms,  to  the  fantastic  ceremonies  of  his  priest,  or  the 
powerful  influence  of  his  manitous.  Fear  has  of  course  a 
greater  share  in  his  devotions  than  gratitude,  and  he  pays 
more  attention  to  deprecating  the  wrath  of  the  evil  than 
securing  the  favour  of  the  good  beings.'  The  Tatars  of 
Katschiutzi  also  considered  the  evil  spirit  to  be  more 
powerful  than  the  good.'*  The  West  Coast  Negroes,  accord- 
ing to  Artus,"'  represent  their  deities  as  *  black  and  mis- 
chievous, delighting  to  torment  them  various  ways.' 
They  said  *  that  the  Europeans'  God  was  very  good,  who 
gave  them  such  blessings,  and  treated  them  like  his 
children.  Others  asked,  murmuring,  why  God  was  not  as 
kind  to  them  ?  Why  did  not  he  supply  tiiem  with  woollen 
and  linen  cloth,  iron,  brass,  and  such  things,  as  well  as 
the  Dutch  ?  The  Dutch  answered,  that  God  had  not 
neglected  them,  since  he  hid  sent  them  gold,  palm-wine, 
fruits,  corn,  oxen,  goats,  hens,  and  many  other  things 
necessary  to  life,  as  tokens  of  his  bounty.  But  there  was 
no  persuading  them  these  things  came  from  God.     They 


■  Muller's  AmiTlcanischon  Urreli- 
gionen,  p.  IT)!. 

'  Kobertson's  America,  book  iv. 
p.  121. 


'  Travels,  p.  388. 

*  Pallas,  vol.  iii.  p.  433. 

*  A^i  o}'s  Colloctiou  of  V^oyages,  vol. 
ii.  p.  664. 


e 


>rln- 


)ring9 


Aated, 
jould.* 
were 
every 
jdskin, 
of  the 
icourse 
or  the 
3iirse  a 
19  pays 
il  than 
itars  of 
le  more 
ccord- 
d  mis- 
ways.' 
•d,  who 
ike   his 
not  as 
oollen 
well  as 
lad   not 
-wine, 
things 
bre  was 
They 


SPIItlTS    REGARDED   AS   CAUPINQ   DISEASE. 


VM 


l-.ages,  vol. 


said  the  earth,  and  not  dod,  gave  them  ^uld,  whioh  was 
dn<T  out  of  its  bowels  :  that  the  earth  yit;lded  thorn  niai/o 
and  rice;  and  that  not  without  the  help  of  their  own 
labour ;  that  for  fruits  they  were  oblij^cid  to  the  Portuguese, 
who  had  planted  the  trees ;  that  their  cattle  brought  them 
young  ones,  and  the  s<^a  furnished  them  with  fish ;  that, 
however,  in  all  these  their  own  industry  and  labour  was 
required,  without  which  they  must  starve ;  so  that  they 
could  not  see  how  they  were  obliged  to  God  for  any  of 
those  benefits.' 

When  Burton  spoke  to  the  Eastern  Negroes  about  the 
Deity,  they  eagerly  asked  wdiero  he  \^as  to  be  found,  in  order 
that  they  might  kill  him  ;  for  they  said,  *  Who  but  he  lays 
waste  our  homes,  and  kills  our  wives  and  cattle  ?* 

The  following  expression  of  Eesa  feelings,  overheard  by 
Burton,  gives  a  dreadful  illustration  of  this  idea.  An  old 
woman,  belonging  to  that  Arab  tribe,  having  a  toothache, 
offered  up  the  following  prayer :  *  Oh,  Allah,  may  thy  teeth 
ache  like  mine !  Oh,  Allah,  may  thy  gums  be  as  sore  as 
mine ! '  Can  this  be  called  '  religion '  ?  Surely  in  spirit 
it  is  the  very  reverse. 

In  New  Zealand*  each  disease  was  regarded  as  being 
caused  by  a  particular  god ;  thus  *  Tonga  was  the  god  who 
caused  headache  and  sickness  :  he  took  up  his  abode  in  the 
forehead.  Moko-Tiki,  a  lizard  god,  was  the  source  of  all 
pains  in  the  breast ;  Tu-tangata-kino  was  the  god  of  the 
stomach  ;  Titi-hai  occasioned  pains  in  the  ankles  and  feet ; 
Rongomai  and  Tuparitapu  were  the  gods  of  consumption  ; 
Koro-kio  presided  over  childbirth.' 

*  Sickness,'  says  Yate,^  'is  brought  on  by  the  "  Atua,"  who, 
when  he  is  angry,  comes  to  them  in  the  form  of  a  lizard, 
enters  their  inside,  and  preys  upon  their  vitals  till  they 

'  Tiiylor's  Now  Zoaland  iir.rl  its  Inhabitants,  p.  34. 
*  '''ale's  New  ZoalanJ,  p.  141. 


t 


r 

(III 


^Ef-l 


hM 


m 


132 


DIHRELIEF   AMONG    SAVAGES   IN    THE 


die.  Ilvnce  they  use  inciintatioiis  over  the  sick,  witli  tliu 
expectation  of  either  proj)itiiitiii«|  the  angry  deity  or  of 
driving  liim  away  ;  for  the  latter  of  which  purposes  thoy 
make  use  of  the  most  threateuing  and  outrageous 
kinfruacre.'  The  Stiens  of  Cambodia  believe  *  in  an  evil 
genius,  and  attribute  all  disease  to  him.  If  anyone  be 
suft'ering  from  illness,  they  say  it  is  the  demon  tormenting 
him  ;  and,  with  this  idea,  make,  night  and  day,  an  insup- 
portable noise  around  the  patient." 

The  Koussa  Kaffirs,'^  says  Lichtenstein,  ascribe  all  their 
diseases  *  to  one  of  three  causes:  either  to  being  enchanted 
by  an  enemy ;  to  the  anger  of  certain  beings,  whose  abode 
appears  to  be  in  the  rivers  ;  or  to  the  power  of  evil  spirits.* 
Among  the  Kols  of  Nagpore,  as  Colonel  E.  T.  Dalton 
tells  us,  *  all  disease  in  men  and  in  cattle  is  attributed  to  one 
or  two  causes,  the  wrath  of  some  evil  spirit  who  has  to  be 
appeased,  or  the  spell  of  some  witch  or  sorcerer ;'  ^  the  Cir- 
cassians and  some  of  the  Chinese  have  also  the  same  belief.^ 

Hence  it  is  that  mad  people  are  in  many  countries 
looked  on  with  so  much  reverence,  since  they  are  looked 
on  as  the  special  fibode  of  some  Deity.  Savages  who 
believe  that  diseases  are  owing  to  magic,  naturally  con- 
clude that  death  is  so  too.  Far  from  having  realised  to 
themselves  the  idea  of  a  future  life,  they  have  not  even 
learnt  that  death  is  the  natural  end  of  this.  We  find  a 
very  general  conviction  among  savages  that  there  is  no  such 
thing  as  natural  death,  and  that  when  a  man  dies  without 
being  wounded,  he  must  be  the  victim  of  magic. 

Thus,  Mr.  Lang,'*^  speaking  of  the  Australians,  says,  that 
whenever  a  native  dies,  *  no  matter  how  evident  it  may  be 

'  Mouhot's  Travels   in  the  Central  <  Klemm,  Aleg.,  Cult.  d.  Mcnschen. 

Parts  of  Inclo-China,  vol.  i.  p.  250.  vol.  iv.  p.  36. 

■''  Licjitonstein,  vol.  ii.  p.  2!).').  *  Lecture  on  the  Aborigines  of  Aus- 

»  Trans.  Etlin.  Soc.  N.S.   18G8,  p.  tralia,  p.  14.    See  also  Oldfield,  Trans. 

30;  KwO,  p.  21.  Ethn.  Soc.  N.S.  vol.  iii.  p.  236. 


!,  til  at 
lay  Lo 

jnsclien. 

of  Aus- 
,  Trans. 


EXISTKNCE    OP    NATUTlATi    tEATH. 


in:j 


that  (loath  has  been  the  result  of  natural  cauHos,  it  is  at 
once  sot  down  that  tho  defunct  was  bewitched  by  tho 
sorcerers  of  some  mMjjfhbourin;' tribe.'  Aniont'  tho  natives 
of  Southern  Africa  no  one  is  supposed  to  die  naturally.* 
The  Bechuauiis,  says  Philip,  *  and  all  tho  Kaffir  tribes,  have 
no  idea  of  any  man  dyin<^'  except  from  liunj^er,  violenc(\ 
or  witchcraft.  If  a  man  die  even  at  the  ago  of  ninety,  if 
he  do  not  die  of  hunger  or  by  violence,  his  death  is  im- 
jiuted  to  sorcery  or  to  witchcraft,  and  blood  is  required 
to  cxi)iatc  or  avenge  it.' "     So  also  Eattel  tells  us  that 

*  none  on  any  account  dietli,  but  that  some  other  has 
bewitched  them  to  death.' '     Dobritzhoffer  *  tells  us  that, 

*  If  an  Abipon  die  from  being  pierced  with  many  wounds, 
or  from  having  his  bones  broken,  or  his  strength  exliausted 
by  extreme  old  age,  his  countrymen  all  deny  that  wounds 
or  weakness  occasioned  his  death,  and  anxiously  try  to 
discover  by  which  of  tho  jugglers,  and  for  what  reason,  he 
was  killed.'     Stevenson '  states  that  in  South  America., 

*  The  Indians  never  believe  that  death  is  owing  to  natural 
causes,  but  that  it  is  tho  effect  of  sorcery  and  witclicraft. 
Tims  on  the  death  of  an  individual  one  or  more  diviners  aro 
consulted,  who  generally  name  t|ie  enchanter,  and  are  so 
implicitly  believed,  that  the  unfortunate  object  of  their 
caprice  or  malice  is  certain  to  fall  a  sacrifice.'  Wallace " 
found  the  same  idea  among  the  tribes  of  the  Amazons ; 
MuUer  ^  mentions  it  as  prevalent  among  the  Dacotah'=' , 
Ilearne  ^  among  the  Hudson's  Bay  Indians. 

But  though  spirits  are  naturally  much  to  be  dreaded  on 
various  accounts,  it  by  no  means  follows  that  they  should  bo 


'  Chapman's  Travels  in  Africa,  vol. 
i.  p.  47. 

«  Philip's  South  Africa,  vol.  i.  p.  118. 

'  Adventures  of  Andrew  Battel,  Pin- 
kerton,  vol.  xvi.  p.  334.  See  y 
vol.  ii.  p.  300. 


*  Loc.  cit.  vol.  ii.  p.  84. 

*  Travels  in  South  America,  vol.  i. 


p.  GO. 


il.  Pin-         «  Loc.  cit.  p.  600. 
Aslley,         '  Amer.  Urrcligioni'ii,  p.  82. 
"  Loc.  cit.  p.  338- 


v 


t 


!t:l 


m 


134 


LOW    IDEAS    OF   SPIRITS 


I    III 


!,!!! 


-If 


conceived  as  necessarily  wiser  or  more  powerful  than  men. 
Of  this  our  table-turners  and  spirit-rappers  give  a  modern 
illustration.  The  natives  of  the  Nicobar  Islands  were  in 
the  habit  of  putting  up  scarecrows  to  frighten  the  *  Eewees ' 
away  from  their  villages.*  The  inhabitants  of  Kamt- 
schatka,  according  to  Kotzebue,*  insult  their  deities  if 
their  wishes  are  unfulfilled.  They  even  feel  a  contempt 
for  them.  If  Kutka,  they  say,  had  not  been  so  stupid, 
would  he  have  made  inaccessible  rocks,  and  too  rapid 
rivers?*  The  Lapps,  according  to  Klemm,  made  idols 
for  their  deities,  and  placed  each  in  a  separate  box,  on 
which  they  indicated  the  name  of  the  deity,  so  that 
each  might  know  its  own  box.* 

Vancouver^  mentions  that  the  inhabitants  of  Owhyhee 
Avere  seriously  offended  with  their  deity  for  permitting 
the  death  of  a  popular  young  chief  named  Wliokaa.  Yate 
observes''  that  the  New  Zealanders,  attributing  certain 
diseases  to  the  attacks  of  the  Atua,  endeavour  either  to 
propitiate  or  drive  hira  away ;  in  the  latter  case  '  they 
make  use  of  the  most  threatening  and  outrageous  language; 
sometimes  telling  their  deity  that  they  will  kill  and  eat 
him.' 

The  negro  of  Guinea  beats  his  Fetish  if  his  wishes  are 
not  complied  with,  and  hides  him  in  his  waist-cloth  if 
about  to  do  anything  of  which  he  is  ashamed,  so  that  the 
Fetish  may  not  be  able  to  see  what  is  going  on.^ 

During  a  storm  the  Bechnanas  cursed  the  deity  for 
sending   thunder;^    and   the    Namaquas    shot    poisoned 


'  Voyage  of  tho  Novara,  vol.  ii.  p.         ®  Aceoiint  of  New  Zealand,  p.  141. 

e6.  D'Urville's  Voyage  de  I'Astrolabe,  vol. 

=»  Loo.  cit.  vol.  ii.  p.  13.  iii.  pp.  245,  440,  470. 

'  Klcram,  Cult.  d.  Meuschcn,  vol.  ii.         "  Astley's  Collection  of  Voyages,  vol. 

p.  318.  ii.  p.  668. 

••  Loc.  cit.  vol.  iii.  p.  81.  *  Chapman's  Travels  in  Africa,  vol, 

•  Voyage  of  Discovery,  vol.  iii.  p.  14.  i.  p.  45. 


I" 


ENTERTAINED    BY   SAVAGES. 


135 


arrows  at  storms  to  drive  them  away.'  When  the  Basuto 
(Kaffir)  is  on  a  marauding  expedition,  he  *  gives  utterance 
to  those  cries  and  hisses  in  which  cattle  drivers  indulge 
when  they  drive  a  herd  before  them;  thinking  in  this 
manner  to  persuade  the  poor  diviniti!?s  (of  the  country 
they  are  attacking)  that  he  is  bringing  cattle  to  their  wor- 
shippers, instead  of  coming  to  take  it  from  them.'* 

According  to  Thomson,'  the  natives  of  Cambodia  as- 
sumed that  the  Deity  did  not  understand  foreign  languages. 
Franklin  *  says  that  the  Cree  Indians  treat  their  Deity, 
whom  they  call  Kepoochikawn,  'with  considerable  fa- 
miliarity, interlarding  their  most  solemn  speeches  with 
expostulations  and  threats  of  neglect  if  he  fails  in  com- 
plying with  their  requests.' 

The  North  Australian  native '  will  not  go  near  graves 
*at  night  by  himself;  but  when  they  are  obliged  to  pass 
them  they  carry  a  fire-stick  to  keep  off  the  spirit  of  dark- 
ness.' 

The  Kyoungtha  of  Chittagong  are  Buddhists.  Their 
village  temples  contain  a  small  stand  of  bells  and  an 
image  of  Boodh,  which  the  villagers  generally  worship 
morning  and  evening,  '  first  ringing  the  bells  to  let  him 
know  that  they  are  there. '^  The  Sinto  temples  of  the 
Sun  Goddess  in  Japan  also  contain  a  bell,  *  intended  to 
arouse  the  goddess  and  to  awaken  her  attention  to  the 
prayers  of  her  worshippers.'  ^ 

According  to  the  Brahmans,^  '  two  things  are  indispen- 
sably necessary  to  the  sacrificer  in  performing  the  cere- 
mony :  several  lighted  lamps,  and  a  bell.' 

The  Tartars  of  the  Altai  picture  to  themselves  the  Deity 


^  Wood's  Natural  History  of  Man, 
vol.  i.  p.  307. 

2  Casalis'  Basutos,  p.  253. 

»  Trans.  Ethn.  Soc.  vol.  vi.  p.  250. 

*  Visit  to  the  Polar  Seas,  vol.  iv. 
p.  146. 


*  Keppel's  Visit  to  tho  Indian  Arclii- 
polaf^o,  vol.  ii.  p.  182. 

"  Lewin's  Hill  Tracts  of  Chittagong, 
p.  39. 

'  Smith's  Ten  Weeks  in  .Japan, p.  4!). 

*  Dubois,  The  People  of  India,  p.  400. 


'U 


f 


III 


m 


:] 


n 


I 


S| 


ill 


i  ■   i 


r^f 


VdG 


THEIR    LO"W    CONCEPTION    OF   THEIR   DEITIES 


4;1   Ml 


i>f: 


■)  1 


I 


; .  I 


as  an  old  man,  with  a  long  beard,  and  dressed  in  the  uni- 
form of  a  Russian  officer  of  Dragoons.* 

Even  the  Greeks  and  Romans  believed  stories  very 
derogatory  not  only  to  the  moral  character,  but  to  the 
intellect  and  power,  of  their  deitiri.  Thus  they  were 
liable  to  defeat  from  mortals:  Mars,  though  the  God  of 
War,  was  wounded  by  Diomede  and  fled  away  howling 
with  pain.  They  had  little  or  no  power  over  the  elements, 
they  had  no  foreknowledge,  and  were  both  morally  and 
mentally  often  represented  as  inferior  to  men.  Even  Homer 
-loes  not  seem  to  have  embraced  the  id-?a  of  Omnipotence.'^ 
In  fact,  it  may  truly  be  said  that  the  savage  has  a  much 
greater  respect  for  his  chief  than  for  his  god.^ 

This  low  estimate  of  spirits  is  phown  in  a  very  striking 
manner  by  the  behp.viour  of  savages  during  eclipses.  All 
over  the  world  we  find  races  of  men  who  believe  that  the  sun 
and  moon  are  alive,  and  who  consider  that  during  eclipses 
they  are  either  quarrelling  with  each  other  or  attacked  by 
the  evil  spirits  of  the  air.  Hence  it  naturally  follows, 
although  to  us  it  seems  absurd,  that  the  savage  endeavours 
to  assist  the  sun  or  moon.  The  Greenlanders  *  regard  the 
sun  and  moon  as  sister  and  brother ;  the  former  being  the 
female,  and  being  constantly  pursued  by  the  latter.  During 
an  eclipse  they  think  the  moon  *  goes  about  nmong  the 
houses  to  pilfer  their  skins  and  eatables,  and  even  to  kill 
those  people  that  have  not  duly  observed  the  rules  of 
abstinence.  At  such  times  they  hide  away  everything, 
and  the  men  carry  chests  and  kettles  on  the  top  of  the 
house,  and  rattle  and  beat  upon  them  to  frighten  away 
the  moon,  and  make  him  return  to  his  place.  At  an 
ecli]3se  of  the  sun  the  women  pinch  the  dogs  by  the  ears ; 


^  Klcmm,  Cult.  d.  Mens.  vol.  iii. 
p.  86. 

^  Gladstone's  Juventus  Mundi,  pp. 
198,  228. 


'  See  Burton's  Abbeokuta,  vol.  i,  p. 
1 80.     Dubois,  loc.  cit.  pp.  30i,  430. 
*  Crantz,  vol.  i.  p.  232. 


uni- 


away 


AS  EVIDENCED  BY  THEIR  BEHAVIOUR  DTTRING  ECLIPSES.     lo7 

if  they  cry,  'tis  a  sure  sign  that  the  end  of  the  world  is 
not  yet  come.'  The  Caribs,  says  Lafitan,  accounted  for 
eclipses  by  supposing  either  that  the  moon  was  ill,  or 
that  she  was  attacked  by  enemies ;  these  they  endeavoured 
to  drive  away  by  dances,  by  cries,  and  by  the  sacred 
rattle.*  The  Chiquito  Indians,*  according  to  Dobritzhoffer, 
think  that  the  sun  and  moon  during  eclipses  are  '  cruelly 
torn  by  dogs,  with  which  they  think  that  the  air  abounds, 
when  th-^y  see  their  light  fail ;  attributing  their  blood-red 
colour  to  the  bites  of  these  animals.  Accordingly,  to 
defend  their  dear  planets  from  those  aerial  mastiffs,  they 
send  a  shower  of  arrows  up  into  the  sky,  amid  loud 
vociferations,  at  the  time  of  the  eclipse.'  "When  the 
Guaycurus,  says  Charlevoix,  *  think  themselves  threatened 
with  a  storm,  they  sally  out  of  their  towns,  the  men  armed 
with  their  mancanas,  and  the  women  and  children  howling 
with  all  their  might ;  for  they  believe  that,  by  so  doing, 
they  put  to  flight  the  devil  that  intended  to  excite  it.'  ^ 
The  ancient  Peruvians,  also,  used  to  beat  their  dogs  during 
eclipses,  in  order,  apparently,  that  by  their  hcwlings  they 
might  frighten  away  the  evil  spirits."*  The  Chinese  of 
Kiatka  thought  that  eclipses  were  caused  by  the  evil 
spirit  placing  his  hand  on  the  moon,  in  whose  defence 
they  immediately  made  as  much  noise  as  possible.^  The 
Stiens  of  Cambodia,''  like  the  Cambodians  themselves, 
account  for  eclipses  by  the  hypothesis  *  that  some  being 
has  swallowed  up  the  sun  and  the  moon ;  and,  in  order  t<j 
deliver  them,  they  made  a  frightful  noise,  beat  the  tam- 
tam, uttered  savage  cries,  and  shot  arrows  into  the  air, 
until  the  sun  reappeared.' 


'  Laritaii,vol.i.rp.248,252.  Tertre, 
History  of  the  Caribby  Islunds,  p.  272. 

-  Loc.  cit.  vol.  ii.  p.  84. 

'  History  of  Paraguay,  vol.  i.  p.  92. 
See  also  p.  203. 


*  Martiup,  lac.  cit.  p.  .S2. 

*  Pallas,  vol.  iv.  p.  220. 

*  Moiiliof's  Travels  in  Indo-Cliiiia, 
vol.  i.  p.  253. 


Nf 


Ml 
I'H 


\A 


;i  ■  t    :i| 


'   < 


138 


BELIEF   IN   GHOSTS. 


During  an  eclipse  the  Sumatrans '  also  '  make  a  loud 
noise  with  sounding  instruments,  to  prevent  one  luminary 
from  devouring  the  other,  as  the  Chinese,  to  frighten 
away  the  dragon ;  a  superstition  that  has  its  source  in 
the  ancient  systems  of  astronomy  (particularly  the  Hindu), 
where  the  nodes  of  the  moon  are  identified  with  the 
dragon's  head  and  tail.  They  tell  of  a  man  in  the  moon 
who  is  continually  employed  in  spinning  cotton,  but  that 
every  night  a  rat  gnaws  his  thread,  and  obliges  him  to 
begin  his  work  afresh.' 

*  In  Ea'stern  Africa,'  Spekg  ^  mentions  that  on  one 
occasion,  *  as  there  was  a  partial  eclipse  of  the  moon,  all 
the  Wanguana  marched  up  and  down  from  Rumanika's 
to  Nnanagi's  huts,  singing  and  beating  our  tin  cooking- 
pots  to  frighten  off  the  spirit  of  the  sun  from  consuming 
entirely  the  chief  object  of  reverence,  the  moon.*  Lander  ^ 
mentions  that  at  Boussa,  in  Central  Africa,  an  eclipse 
was  attributed  to  an  attack  made  by  the  sun  on  the 
moon.  During  the  whole  time  the  eclipse  lasted  the 
natives  made  as  much  noise  as  possible,  *  in  the  hope  of 
being  able  to  frighten  away  the  sun  to  his  proper  sphere, 
and  leave  the  moon  to  enlighten  the  world  as  at  other 
times.' 

■  One  of  the  difficulties  in  arriving  at  any  clear  concep- 
tion of  the  religious  system  of  the  lower  races  arises  from 
a  confusion  between  a  belief  in  ghosts  and  that  in  an  im- 
mortal spirit.  Yet  the  two  are  essentially  distinct ;  and 
the  spirit  is  not  necessarily  regarded  as  immortal  because 
it  does  not  perish  with  the  body.  The  negroes,  for  instance, 
says  one  of  our  keenest  observers,  Captain  Burton,  *  believe 
in  a  ghost,  but  not  in  spirit ;  in  a  present  immaterial,  but 
not  in  a  future.' '' 


'  Marsden's  History  of  Sumatra,  p.         '  R.  and  I.  Lander's  Niger  Expedi- 
194.  "     tion,  vol.  ii.  pp.  180,  183. 


'  Spekf,  p.  243. 


*  Trans.  Ethn.  Soc.  N.S.  vol.  i.  p.  323 


ABSENCE    OP   BELIEF   IN    FUTURE    LIFE. 


139 


Counting  on  nothing  after  tlie  present  life,  there  is  fi^r 
them  no  hope  beyond  the  grave.  They  wail  and  sorrow 
with  a  burden  of  despair.  *  Amekwisha  ' — *  he  is  finished ' 
— is  the  East  African's  last  word  concerning  parent  or 
friend.  *  All  is  done  for  ever,'  sing  the  West  Africans. 
The  least  allusion  to  loss  of  life  makes  their  black  skins 
pale.  *  Ah,'  they  exclaim,  '  it  is  bad  to  die  ;  to  leave  house 
and  home,  wife  and  children ;  no  more  to  wear  soft  cloth, 
nor  eat  meat,  nor  smoke  tobacco.'  ^ 

The  Hudson's  Bay  Indians,  according  to  Ilearne,^  a 
good  observer  and  one  who  had  ample  means  of  judging, 
had  no  idea  of  any  life  after  death. 

In  other  cases,  the  spirit  is  supposed  to  survive  the 
body  for  a  certain  time,  and  to  linger  about  its  old  abode. 

Ask  the  negro,  says  M.  Du  Chaillu,*''  *  where  is  the 
spirit  of  his  great-grandfather,  he  says  he  does  not  know ; 
it  is  done.  Ask  him  about  the  spirit  of  his  father  or  , 
brother  who  died  yesterday,  then  he  is  full  of  fear  and 
terror ;  he  believes  it  to  be  generally  near  the  place  where 
the  body  has  been  buried,  and  among  many  tribes  the 
village  is  removed  immediately  after  the  death  of  one  of 
the  inhabitants.'  The  same  belief  prevails  among  the 
Amazulu  Kaffirs,  as  has  been  well  shown  by  Mr.  Callaway.* 
They  believe  that  the  spirits  of  their  deceased  fathers 
and  brothers  still  live,  because  they  appear  in  dreams ;  by 
inverse  reasoning,  however,  grandfathers  are  generally 
regarded  as  having  ceased  to  exist. 

Bosman  mentions  that  on  the  Guinea  Coast,  when  '  any 
considerable  person  dies,  they  perplex  one  another  with 
horrid  fears,  proceeding  from  an  opinion  that  he  appears 
for  several  nights  successively  near  bis  late  dwelling.'* 

•  Eurton,  Trans.  Ethn.  Soc,  vol.  i.     309. 

P-  323.  «  The  Religious  System  of  the  Ama- 

*  Loc.  cit.  p.  344.  Zulu,  ^869. 

»  Trans.  Ethn.  Soc.  N.S.  vol.  i.  p.         *  Eosman,  loc.  cit.  p.  402. 


ill 


■I 


h 


it  n 


™l 


m 

'hi 

hi 


I' 


•:.  1 


i    M 

1   1 


'1 


I' I 


1  JO       I'UTUIIE    LIFE    DErENDENT    ON    MODE    OF    DEATH. 

Tlins  it  seems  tlia,t  tlie  power  of  a  gliost  after  death  bears 
some  relation  to  that  which  the  man  possessed  when  alive. 
Other  negroes  think  that  after  death  they  become  white 
men' — a  curions  idea,  which  also  occurs  in  Australia. 
Among  the  Tippcrahs  of  Chittagong,  if  a  man  dies  away 
from  home,  his  relatives  stretch  a  thread  over  all  the 
intermediate  sitreams,  so  that  the  spirit  of  the  dead  man 
may  return  to  his  own  village;  it  being  supposed  that 
'without  assistance  spirits  arc  unable  to  cross  running 
water ;  therefore  the  stream  here  had  been  bridged  in 
the  manner  aforesaid.' ^  We  knov\r  that  a  somewhat 
similar  idea  existed  in  Euroj^e,  and  it  occurs  also,  as  we 
shall  see  (p.  1  to),  in  the  Fegee  Islands. 

Again,  some  modes  of  death  are  supposed  to  kill  not 
only  the  body  but  the  spirit  also.  Thus  a  Bushman 
who  was  a  magician,  having  put  to  death  a  woman,  dashed 
the  head  of  the  corpse  to  pieces  with  large  stones,  buried 
her,  and  made  a  large  fire  over  the  grave,  for  fear,  as 
he  explained  to  Lichtenstein,  lest  she  should  rise  again 
and  *  trouble  him.' ^  Even  the  New  Zealanders  believed 
that  a  man  who  was  eaten  w^as  destroyed  both  body  and 
spirit.  The-  same  idea  evidently  influenced  the  Californian 
who,  as  recorded  by  Mr.  Gibbs,  did  not  dispute  the  immor- 
tality of  the  whites  who  buried  their  dead,  but  could  not 
believe  the  same  of  his  own  people  because  they  were  in 
the  habit  of  burning  them.* 

In  these  cases  it  will  be  observed  that  the  existence  of 
the  ghost  depends  upon  the  manner  of  death.  This  is  no 
doubt  absurd,  but  it  is  not  illogical.  The  savage's  idea  of 
a  spirit  is  something  ethereal  indeed,  but  not  altogether 
immaterial,  and  consequently  it  may  be  injured  by  violence. 


..ri 


'  T.oc.  cif.  p   101. 
p.  84 


'  Lewiij's  Hill  Tracts  of  Cliktiigoiip:, 


^  Lii'liciisfoin,  vol.  ii.  p.  fil. 
*  Schoolcraft's    Indian   Tribes,   Pt. 
ITJ.  p.  107. 


BELIEF    IN   THE   PLURALITY    OF    SOULS. 


Ml 


xifirs 


Some  races  believe  in  ghosts  of  the  living  as  well  as  of  the 
dead.  For  instance,  the  Fijlans*  believe  *  that  the  spirit 
of  a  man  who  still  lives  will  leave  the  body  to  trouble 
other  people  when  asleeji.  Wlien  anyone  faints  or  dies, 
their  spirit,  it  is  said,  may  sometimes  be  brought  back  by 
calling  after  it. 

Even  when  the  ideas  of  a  soul  and  of  future  life  are  more 
developed,  they  are  far  from  always  taking  the  direction  of 
our  beliefs. 

Thus  the  Caribs  and  Eed skins  believe  that  a  man  has 
more  than  one  soul ;  to  this  they  are  probably  led  by  the 
pulsation  of  the  heart  and  the  arteries,  which  they  regard 
as  evidences  of  independent  life.  Thus  also  they  account 
for  inconsistencies  of  behaviour. 

The  belief  in  ghosts,  then,  is  essentially  different  from  our 
notions  of  a  future  life.  Ghosts  are  mortal,  they  haunt 
burial-grounds  and  hover  round  their  own  graves.  Even 
when  a  higher  stage  has  been  gained,  the  place  of 
departed  souls  is  not  a  heaven,  but  merely  a  better 
earth. 

Divination  and  sorcery  are  very  widely  distributed. 
Their  characteristics  are  so  well  known  and  so  similar  all 
over  the  world,  that  I  shall  only  give  a  few  suggestive 
illustrations. 

Whipple"  thus  describes  a  scene  of  divination  among 
the  Cherokees.  The  priest  having  concluded  an  eloquent 
address,  took  '  a  curiously  wrought  bowl,  alleged  to  be  of 
great  antiquity ;  he  filled  it  with  water  and  placed  the. 
black  substance  within,  causing  it  to  move  from  one  side  to 
the  other,  and  from  bottom  to  top,  by  a  word.  Alluding, 
then,  to  danger  and  foes,  the  enchanted  mineral  fled  from 
the  point  of  his  knife  ;  but  as  he  began  to  speak  of  peace 


Mil 
I        I'H 


m 


^ir 


iii 


*  Fiji   and   the  Fijiaiis,  vol.    i.  p. 
242. 


Epport  on  the  Indian  Tribes,  p.  35. 


i: 


I  li 


m 


ii'j.  I 


142 


DIVINATION. 


and  security,  it  turned  toward  and  clung  to  it,  till  lifted 
entirely  from  the  water.  The  j^ricst  finally  interpreted 
the  omen  by  informing  the  people  that  peace  was  in  the 
Uocendant,  no  enemy  being  near.' 

In  West  Africa  '  they  have  a  mode  of  divination  with 
nuts,  *  which  they  pretend  to  take  up  by  guess,  and  let  fall 
again ;  after  which  they  tell  them,  and  form  their  answers 
according  as  tlie*numbers  arc  even  or  odd.'  The  negroes 
of  l.gba'  consult  Shango  by  'throwing  sixteen  pierced 
r  "ies :  if  eight  fall  upwards  and  eight  downwards,  it 
hi  p.;..-e;  if  all  are  upwards,  it  is  also  a  good  sign;  and 
vice  vertiv,  if  all  fall  with  their  teeth  to  the  ground,  it  is 
war.' 

The  Lapps  have  a  curious  mode  of  divination.  They 
put  a  shoulder-blade  in  the  fire,  and  then  foretell  the 
luture  by  the  arrangement  of  the  cracks  (figs.  15-17). 
The  same  custom  exists  among  the  Mongols'  and  Tun- 
guses  of  Siberia,*  and  the  Bedouins.  The  lines  vary 
of  course  greatly,  still  there  are  certain  principal  cracks 
which  usually  occur.  The  following  figures  of  Kalmuck 
specimens  are  copied  from  Klemm,  who  explains,  after 
Pallas,  the  meaning  of  the  various  lines.  The  Chipewyans 
of  North  America  also  make  their  magic  drawings  on 
shoulder-blades,  which  they  then  throw  into  the  fire.* 
Williams^  describes  various  modes  of  divination  practised 
in  Fiji. 

In  New  Zealand,  before  a  warlike  expedition  is  under- 
taken, sticks  are  sometimes  stuck  up  in  the  ground  in  two 
rows,  one  of  which  denotes  their  own  party,  the  other  that 
of  the  enemy.    If  the  wind  blows  the  enemy's  sticks 


'  Astley's  Collection  of  Voyages, 
vol.  ii.  p.  674. 

*  Abbeokuta,  vol.  i.  p.  188. 

^  Klemm,  Cult,  der  Mens.,  vol.  iii. 
p.  199. 


*  Ibid.  p.  109. 

*  Tanner's  Narrative,  p.  192. 

*  Fiji  and  the  Fijians,  vol.  i.  p. 
228.  See  also  Mariner's  Tonga 
Islands,  vol.  ii.  p.  239. 


DIVINATION. 


143 


.  1.  p. 

Tonga 


backwards,  tliey  will  bo  defeated  ;  if  forwards,  tliey  will  bo 
victorious ;  if  obliquely,  tlio  expedition  will  be  indecisive. 
The  same  criterion  is  applied  to  their  own  sticks.* 

This  is  a  case  of  divination,  but  from  it  to  sor<  uy  is  a 
short  and  obvious  step.  "When  once  it  is  grantc  !  iiat  the 
fall  of  a  stick   certLiinly  preludes  that  of  the  i  rson  it 

Fio.  lo. 


siiouLi*KK-BLA.DEs  PUEPARED  FOB  DIVINATION.    (Klcmiti,  Culturg.  (Icr  Meiischeit, 

vol.  iii.  p.  200.) 

represents,  it  follows  that  by  upsetting  the  stick,  his  death 
can  be  caused. 

We  find  a  very  similar  idea  in  the  western  Highlands 
of  Scotland.  In  the  *  Sea  Maiden '  a  mermaid  appears 
to  a  fisherman,  and  gives  him  three  seeds,  which  are  to 
produce  three  trees,  which  *  will  be  a  sign,  when  one  of 

'  Yftte's  NeM'  Zealand,  p.  91. 


lull 

!;,;■■ 


i    i 


i-    I 


1i 


% 


y>  y>, 


Ih 


^ili  111 


If  .1 


IS  t^ 


Mt 


SOnCKRT. 


the  sons  dies,  one  of  the  trees  will  wither;'  and  tins 
accordingly  took  place.' 

A  supposed  prophet  of  the  Shawnecsc  (North  America) 
sent  word  to  Tanner  that  the  fire  in  his  lodge  was  inti- 
mately connected  with  his  life.  *  Henceforth,'  sa.  .  he, 
'  the  fire  must  never  be  suffered  to  go  out  in  your  lodge. 
Summer  and  winter,  day  and  night,  in  the  storm,  or  when 
it  is  calm,  you  must  remember  that  the  life  in  your  body 
and  the  fire  in  your  lodge  arc  the  same.  If  you  suffer 
your  fire  to  be  extinguished,  at  that  moment  your  life  will 
be  at  an  end.'  ^ 

Father  Merolla  mentions  a  case  in  which  a  Congo 
(negro)  witch  tried  to  destroy  him.  With  this  object 
she  dug  a  hole  in  the  ground,  and  I  resolved,  sa}s 
the  worthy  Father,*  '  not  to  stand  long  in  one  place, 
thereby  to  avoid  the  design  she  had  upon  me  to  bewitch 
me  to  death,  that  having  been  the  reason  of  her  making  a 
hole  in  the  earth.  It  seems  their  custom  is,  that  when 
they  have  a  mind  to  bewitch  anyone  mortally,  they  put  a 
certain  herb  or  plant  into  the  hole  they  have  so  dug; 
which,  as  it  perishes  or  decays,  so  the  vigour  and  spirits 
of  the  person  they  have  a  design  upon  will  fail  and  decay.' 
In  Fiji  ■*  *  one  mode  of  operating  is  to  bury  a  cocoa-nut, 
with  the  eye  upwards,  beneath  the  temple-hearth,  on 
which  a  fire  is  kept  constantly  burning  ;  and  as  the  life  of 
the  nut  is  destroyed,  so  the  health  of  the  person  it  repre- 
sents will  fail,  till  death  ensues.  At  Matuku  there  is  a 
grove  sacred  to  the  god  Tokalau,  the  wind.  The  priest 
promises  the  destruction  of  any  hated  person  in  four  days 
if  those  who  wish  his  death  bring  a  portion  of  his  hair, 
dress,  or  food  which  he  has  left.  This  priest  keeps  a  fire 
burning,  and  approaches  the  jilace  on  his  hands  and  knees. 

"  Campbell's    Tales    of   the  West         »  Pinkerton,  vol.  xvi.  p.  290. 
Highlands,  vol.  i.  p.  71.  *  Fiji    and   the    Fijians,  vol.  i.  p. 

■■'  Tanner's  Narrative,  p.  1j6.  248. 


SOnCEKY. 


in 


this 


dug ; 


Tf  the  viclini  baUio  before  the  fourth  Jay,  the  si)C'll  is  broken. 
The  most  common  me  -hod,  however,  is  the  Viikadranikau, 
or  compounuinfT  of  certain  leaves  supposed  to  posse33  i 
nuigical  i)ower,  and  v/hich  are  wrapped  in  other  leaves,  or 
2Hit  into  a  ymall  bamboo  case,  and  buried  in  the  garden  of 
the  person  to  bo  bewitched,  or  hidden  in  the  thatch  of 
his  house.  The  native  imagination  is  so  absolutely  under 
the  control  of  the  fear  of  these  charms,  that  persons, 
hearing  that  they  were  the  objects  of  such  spells,  have 
lain  down  on  their  mats,  and  died  through  fear.  Those 
who  have  reason  to  suspect  others  of  plotting  against 
them,  avoid  eating  in  their  presence,  or  are  careful  to 
leave  no  fragment  of  food  behind ;  they  also  dispose  their 
garments  so  that  no  part  can  be  removed.  Most  natives 
on  cutting  their  hair  hide  what  is  cut  off  in  the  thatch  of 
their  own  houses.  Some  build  themselves  a  small  house, 
and  surround  it  with  a  moat,  believing  that  a  little  water 
will  neutralise  the  charms  which  are  directed  against 
them.'  In  North  America,  to  ensure  a  successful  war, 
courtship,  or  hunt,  the  Indians  make  a  rude  drawing,  or 
a  little  image  to  represent  the  man,  woman,  or  animal ; 
then  medicine  is  applied  to  it,  or,  if  the  design  is  to  cause 
death,  the  heart  is  pierced.*  In  India  also  the  magicians 
make  small  figures  of  mud,  on  the  breasts  of  which  they 
write  the  names  of  those  whom  they  wish  to  annoy.  They 
then  '  pierce  the  images  with  thorns,  or  mutilate  them,  so 
as  to  communicate  a  corresponding  injury  to  the  person 
represented.'  * 

In  other  cases,  the  possession  of  a  person's  name  is  suffi- 
cient, and  indeed,  all  over  the  world  we  find  more  or  less 
confusion  between  a  thing  or  a  person,  and  its  or  his  name. 
Hence  the  importance  attached  among  the  North  American 


J     I 


■  Tanner's  Narrative,  p.  171. 


Dubois,  The  People  of  India,  p.  347. 


110 


CONFUSION   OF    NAME    AND   TtHNO. 


Iiidiiuis  and  South  Sea  Islaudors  to  an  exchfini';u  of  iwluioh. 
Ht'iice,  as  already  mentioned,  wo  often  find  a  person's 
real  name  concealed,  lest  a  knowled^nj  of  it  should  give 
a  power  over  the  i)erson.  Even  the  llomans  when  they 
besieged  a  town,  had  a  curious  ceremony  founded  on  the 
same  idea.  They  invoked  the  tutelar  deity  of  the  city, 
a,ud  tempted  him  by  the  offer  of  rewards  and  sacrifices 
*  to  betray  his  friends  and  votaries.  In  that  ceremony 
the  name  of  the  tutelar  deity  was  thought  of  importance, 
and  for  that  reason  the  tutelar  deity  of  Rome  was  a  pro- 
found seer  t.' ' 

Sumatra  gives  us  a  curious  instance  of  long  survival  of 
this  idea  in  a  somewhat  advanced  community.  *  A  Suma- 
tran'  ever  scrupulously  abstains  from  pronouncing  his  own 
name  ;  nc*",  as  I  understand,  from  any  motive  of  super- 
stition, but  merely  as  a  punctilio  in  manners.  It  occasions 
him  infinite  embarrassment  when  a  stranger,  unacquainted 
with  their  customs,  requires  it  of  him.  As  soon  as  ho 
recovers  from  his  confusion,  he  solicits  the  interposition 
of  his  neighbour.  He  is  never  addressed,  except  in 
the  case  of  a  superior  dictating  to  his  dependant,  in  the 
second  person,  but  always  in  the  third ;  using  his  name 
or  title  instead  of  the  pronoun ;  and  when  these  are  un- 
known, a  general  title  of  respect  is  substituted,  and  they 
say,  for  instance,  "  apa  orang  kaya  punia  Ruka,"  "  what  is 
his  honour's  pleasure,"  for  "  what  is  your,  or  your  honour's 
pleasure."  When  criminals  or  other  ignominious  persons 
are  spoken  to,  use  is  made  of  the  pronoun  personal  kau 
(a  contraction  of  angkau),  particularly  expressive  of  con- 
tempt.' 

Generally,  however,  it  was  considered  indispensable 
that  the  sorcerer   should  possess  *  something  connected 


*  Lord  Kamcs'  History  of  Mm,  vol.         '  INfarsdec's   Ilistory   of    Sumatra, 
iv.  p.  226.  p.  286. 


CONFUSION   OF   PART   AND   WHOLE. 


117 


I  sable 
ected 

iima^ra, 


with  the  body  of  the  objo('^>  of  vcngonnco.  The  piirnif»s  of 
the  nails,  a  h)ck  of  the  hair,  the  saliva  from  the  nioiitli,  or 
other  secretions  from  the  body,  or  else  a  portion  of  the  food 
which  the  person  was  to  eat.  Tliij  was  considered  as  the 
vehicle  by  which  the  demon  entered  the  person,  who  after- 
wards became  possessed.  It  ivas  called  the  tubii,  growing 
or  causin*^  to  ^row.  When  procured,  the  tara  was  per- 
formed ;  the  sorcerer  took  the  hair,  saliva,  or  other  sub- 
tjtance  that  had  belonged  to  his  victim,  to  his  house,  or 
marae,  performed  his  incantations  over  it,  and  offered  his 
prayers  ;  the  demon  was  then  supposed  to  enter  the  tubu, 
and  throaf^h  it  the  individual,  who  afterwards  became 
possessed.'' 

In  New  Zealand^  also  the  sorcerers  *  use  the  saliva  of  the 
people  whom  they  intend  to  bewitch  ;  and  visitors  care- 
fully conceal  their  spittle,  to  give  them  no  opportunity  of 
working  their  evil.'  Tylor'  also  says  that  a  'person  who 
wished  to  bewitch  another,  sought  to  obtain  something 
belonging  to  him — a  lock  of  hair,  a  portion  of  his  garment, 
or  even  some  of  his  food ;  this  being  possessed,  he  uttered 
certain  karakias  over  it,  and  then  buried  it ;  as  the 
article  decayed,  the  individual  also  was  supposed  to 
waste  away.  This  was  sure  to  be  the  case  if  the 
victim  heard  of  it ;  fear  quickly  accomplishing  his  enemy's 
wish.  The  person  who  bewitched  another,  remained 
three  days  without  eating ;  on  the  fourth  he  ate,  and  his 
victim  died.' 

So  also  Seemann"*  tells  us  .hat  *  if  a  Fijian  wishes  to 
cause  the  destruction  of  an  individual  by  other  means  than 
open  violence  or  secret  poison,  the  case  is  put  in  the  hands 
of  one  of  these  sorcerers,  care  being  taken  to  let  this  luct 


'  Williiims'  Polynesian  Researches,         '  N(  w  Zealand  and  I',-   Inhabitants, 
vol.  ii.  p.  228.  pp.  89,  167. 

■■*  Dieffcubach,  vol.  ii.  p.  59.  *  A  Mission  to  Viti,  p.  1S9. 


1 


MM 


A 


i  f 


143 


SIMILARITY    OF    WITCHCRAFT 


\i  i 


be  generally  and  widely  known.  Tlie  sorcer  t  now  pro- 
ceeds to  obtain  any  article  tliat  Las  once  been  in  the 
possession  of  the  person  to  be  operated  upon.  These 
articles  are  then  burnt  with  certain  leaves,  and  if  the 
reputation  of  the  sorcerer  be  suffi  ^iently  powerful,  in  nine 
cases  out  of  ten  the  nervous  fears  of  the  individual  to  be 
punished  will  bring  on  disease,  if  not  death :  a  similar 
process  is  applied  to  discover  thieves.' 

Sir  G.  Grey  thus  describes  a  scene  of  witchcraft  in  New 
Zealand  :  '  The  priests  '  then  dug  a  long  pit,  termed  the  pit 
of  wrath,  into  which  by  their  long  enchantments  they 
might  bring  the  spirits  of  their  enemies,  and  hang  them 
and  destroy  them  there  ;  and  when  they  had  dug  the  pit, 
muttering  the  necessary  incantations,  they  took  largo 
shells  in  their  banc's  to  scrape  the  sj^irits  of  their  enemies 
into  the  j)it  with,  whilst  they  muttered  "enchantments ; 
and  when  they  had  done  this  they  scraped  the  earth  into 
the  pit  again  to  cover  them  up,  and  beat  down  the  earth 
with  their  hands,  and  crossed  the  pit  with  enchanted 
cloths,  and  wove  baskets  of  flax-leaves  to  hold  ihe  spirits 
of  the  foes  which  they  had  thus  destroyed,  and  each  of 
these  acts  they  accompanied  with  proper  spells.' 

In  North  America,  also,  *  a  hair  from  the  head  of  the 
victim '  is  sujDposed  to  increase  greatly  the  efficacy  of 
charms. 

We  cannot  w^onder  that  savages  believe  in  witchcraft, 
since  even  the  most  civilised  races  have  not  loner,  nor 
entirely,  ceased  to  do  so. 

Like  our  spirit-raj^pers  and  table-turners,  the  Chinese 
magicians,^ '  though  they  have  never  seen  the  person  wdio 
consults  them,  they  tell  his  name,  and  all  the  circum- 
stances of  his  family;  in  what  manner  his  house  is  situated, 


■  rolynosiiin  Mytliolojry,  p.  1G8. 

'  Astley's  Collection  of  Vuyagos,  vol.  iv.  p.  205. 


iT  pro- 
11  tlio 
Tlicso 
if  the 
11  nine 
L  to  be 
limilar 

n  New 
blie  pit 
s  tliey 
^  them 
he  pit, 
:   largo 
nemies 
ments  ; 
th  into 
B  earth 
lanted 
spirits 
ach  of 

of  the 
acy  of 

hcraft, 
g,  nor 

hincse 
>n  who 
ircnm- 
uated, 


IN    VARIOUS    PARTS    OP   THE   WORLD. 


Jia 


how  many  children  he  has,  their  names  and  age ;  Avitli  a 
hundred  other  particulars,  which  may  be  naturally  enouo-h 
supposed  known  to  the  demons,  and  are  strangely  sur- 
prising to  weak  and  credulous  minds  among  the  vulgar. 

'  Some  of  these  conjurers,  after  invoking  the  demons, 
cans  ^  the  figures  of  the  chief  of  their  sect,  and  of  their 
idols,  to  appear  in  the  air.  Formerly  they  could  make  a 
pencil  write  of  itself,  without  anybody  touching  it,  upon 
paper  or  sand,  the  a.nswers  to  questions.  They  likewise 
cause  all  people  of  any  house  to  pass  in  review  in  a  large 
vessel  of  water ;  wherein  they  also  show  the  changes  that 
shall  happen  in  the  empire,  and  the  imaginary  dignities 
to  which  those  shall  be  advanced  who  embrace  their  sect. 

In  all  parts  of  India,  says  De  Faira,^  *  there  are  pro- 
digious wizards.  When  Yasco  de  Gama  was  sailing  upon 
that  discovery  some  of  them  at  Kalekut  showed  people,  iu 
basins  of  water,  the  three  ships  he  had  with  him.  When 
Don  Francisco  de  Almeyda,  the  first  viceroy  of  India,  was 
returning  to  Portugal,  some  witches  of  Kochin  told  him 
he  should  not  pass  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  ;  and  there  he 
was  buried.  (This  is  strained  a  little  ;  for  he  did  pass  the 
Cape,  and  was  buried  at  the  bay  of  Saldanna,  some  leagues 
beyond,  as  will  be  seen  hereafter.)  What  follows  is  still 
more  extraordinary.  At  Maskat  there  are  such  sorcerers 
that  they  eat  the  inside  of  a  thing,  only  fixing  their  eyes 
upon  it.  With  their  sight  they  draw  out  the  entrails  of 
any  human  body,  and  so  kill  many  people.  One  of  these 
fascinators,  fixing  his  eyes  on  a  bateka,  or  water  melon, 
sucked  out  the  inside;  for,  being  cut  open  to  try  the 
experiment,  it  was  found  empty ;  and  the  wizard,  to 
satisfy  the  spectators,  vomited  it  up  again.' 

Father  Merolla,^   a   Capuchin    '  missioner,'  tells    quite 


11 


f 


'Ml 


■U 


'   Quoted  in   Astloy's  Colleclicn    of         ^  Voyiigc  to  Congo,  Pinkcrton,  vol. 
Vovagce,  vol.  i.  p.  63.  xv.  p.  229. 


150 


BELIEF    IN    WITCHCRAFT 


II  ' 


imi 


i 


II 


gravely  tlie  following  story.  The  army  o,''  Sogno  having 
captured  a  neighbouring  town,  foand  in  it  a  large  cock 
with  a  ring  of  iron  round  one  leg.  This  they  killed,  cut 
in  pieces,  and  put  into  a  pot  to  boil ;  when,  however,  they 
tho\ight  to  eat  it,  '  the  boiled  pieces  of  the  cock,  though 
sodden,  and  near  dissolved,  began  to  move  about,  and 
unite  into  the  form  they  were  in  before,  and  being  so 
united,  the  restored  cock  immediately  raised  Ijimself  uj), 
and  jumped  out  of  the  platter  upon  the  ground,  where  he 
walked  about  as  well  as  \7hen  he  was  first  taken.  After- 
wards he  leaped  upon  an  adjoining  wall,  where  he  became 
new-feathered  all  of  a  sudden,  and  then  took  his  flight  to 
a  tree  hard  by,  where,  fixing  himself,  he,  after  three  claps 
of  his  wings,  made  a  most  hideous  noise,  and  then  dis- 
appeared. Everyone  may  easily  imagine  what  a  terrible 
fright  the  spectators  were  in  at  this  sight,  who,  leaping 
with  a  thousand  Ave-Marias  in  their  mouths  from  the 
place  where  this  had  happened,  were  contented  to  observe 
most  of  the  particulars  at  a  distance.' 

To  doubt  the  reality  of  witchcraft,  says  Lafitau,'  *  est 
une  Industrie  des  athees,  et  un  effet  de  cet  esprit  d'irre- 
ligion  qui  fait  aujourd'hui  des  progres  si  sensibles  dans 
le  monde,  d'avoir  detruit  en  quelque  sorte  dans  I'idee  de 
ceux  meme  qui  se  piquent  d'avoir  de  la  religion ;  qu'i]  se 
trouve  des  hommes,  qui  ayent  commerce  avec  les  demons 
par  la  voye  des  enchantemens  et  de  la  magie.  On  a 
attache  a  cette  opinion  une  certaine  faiblesse  d'esprit  a 
la  croire,  qui  fait  qu'on  ne  la  tolero  piu!3,  que  dans  les 
femmelettes  et  daixS  le  bas  peuple,  ou  dans  les  pretres 
et  dans  les  religieux,  qu'on  suppose  avoir  interet  a 
entretenir  ces  visions  populaires,  qu'un  homme  de  sens 
auroit  hoiite  d'avouer.     Pour  etablir  cependant  cet  esprit 


'  Loc.  cit,  vol.  i.  p.  374. 


SHARED  BY  EUROPEAN  TRAVELLERS. 


lul 


having 
je  cock 
[ed,  cut 
sr,  they 
thoujjli 
it,  and 
iin<^  so 
self  up, 
liere  he 
After- 
became 
lif^ht  to 
ie  claps 
en  dis- 
terrible 
leaping 
om  the 
observe 

u,'  '  est 

d'irre- 

3S  dans 

idee  de 

qu'il  se 

demons 

On  a 

3sprit  a 

ans  les 

pretres 

teret   a 

ile  sens 

t  esprit 


d'incredulite,  il  faut  que  ces  pretendus  esprits  forts  veuil- 
lent  s'aveugler  au  milieu  de  la  lumiere,  qu'ils  renversent 
I'Ancien  et  le  Nouveau  Testament;  qu'ils  contredisent 
toute  I'antiquite,  I'histoire  sacree  et  la  profane.  On 
trouve  partout  des  temoignages  de  ce  commerce  des 
hommes  avec  les  divinites  du  paganisme,  ou  pour  mieux 
dire  avec  les  demons.' 

He  does  not  deny  that  some  wizards  were  impostors, 
but  he  maintains  that  *  ce  seroit  rendre  le  monde  trop  sot, 
que  de  vouloir  le  supposer  pendant  plusieurs  siecles,  la 
dupe  de  quelques  miserables  joureurs  de  gobelets.'  Nay, 
he  even  maintained  •  that  America  was,  for  some  myste- 
rious reason,  handed  over  to  the  devil,  and  accounted  for 
the  remarkable  similarity  between  some  of  the  religious 
ceremonies,  &c.,  in  the  new  and  old  worlds,  by  the  hy- 
pothesis that  '  le  demon,  jaloux  de  la  gloire  de  Dieu,  et 
du  bonheur  de  I'homme,  a  toujours  ete  attentif  a  derober 
a  I'un  le  culte  qui  lui  est  du,  et  a  perdre  I'autre,  en  le 
rendant  son  Adorateur.  Pour  cela  il  a  erige  Autel  contre 
Autel,  et  a  affecte  de  maintenir  le  culte,  qu'il  vouloit  se 
faire  rendre  par  les  eifets  d'une  puissance  sur-humaine, 
qui  imposassent  par  le  merveilleux,  et  qui  fussent  imites 
et  copies  d'apres  ceux,  dont  Dieu  donnait  a  son  peuple 
des  temoignages  si  autentiques,  par  I'evidence  des  miracles 
qu'il  faisoit  en  sa  favour.' 

Labat  *  also,  w^hile  admitting  *  qu'on  exagere  souvent 
dans  ce  qu'on  en  dit ;  mais  je  croi  qu'il  faut  convenir  que 
tout  ce  qu'on  dit  n'est  pas  entierement  faux,  quoiqu'il  ne 
soit  peut-etre  pas  entierement  vrai.  Je  suis  aussi  per- 
suade qu'il  y  a  des  faits  d'une  verite  tres-constante ; ' 
and  after  mentioning  four  of  these  supposed  facts,  he 
concludes,  '  il   me   semble  que   ces  quatre  faits  suffisent 

'  Vol.  i.  p.  35.'). 

"  Voyage  aux  Isles  de  rAinerlquo,  vol.  ii.  p.  67. 


•  ^\ 


til 


!t 


M'  1 


M 


152 


SORCERERS  NOT  NECESSARILY  IMPOSTORS. 


pour  prouver  qu'il  y  a  vuritiiLlement  des  gens  qui  out 
commerce  avec  le  diablc,  et  qui  se  servent  de  lui  en  bien 
des  clioses.' 

Some,  even  of  our  recent  missionaries,  according  to 
Williams,  believed  that  the  Polynesian  wizards  really 
j)Ossessed  supernatural  powers,  and  were  '  agents  of  the 
infernal  powers.'  •  Nay,  Williams  himself  thought  it  *  not 
imj)ossible.' 

We  may  well  be  surprised  that  Europeans  should  believe 
i'l  such  things,  and  missionaries  so  credulous  and  ignorant 
ought,  one  might  suppose,  rather  to  learn  than  to  teach  ; 
on  the  other  hand,  it  is  not  surprising  that  savages  should 
believe  in  witchcraft,  nor  even  that  the  wizards  should 
believe  in  themselves. 

We  must  indeed  by  no  means  suppose  that  sorcerers 
were  always,  or  indeed  generally,  iiivtxjstors. 

The  Shamans  of  Siberia  are,  says  Wrangel,  ^  by  no 
means  *  ordinary  deceivers,  but  a  psychological  pheno- 
menon, well  deserving  of  attention.  Whenever  I  have 
seen  them  operate  they  have  'eft  with,  me  a  long-continued 
and  gloomy  impression.  The  w^ild  look,  the  bloodshot 
eyes,  the  lalxi.ufjig  breast  and  convulsive  utterance,  the 
seen.xngly  invobv^tary  distortion  of  the  face  and  the  whole 
body,  the  streaming  hair,  even  the  hollow  sound  of  the 
drum,  all  contributed  to  the  effect ;  and  I  can  well  under- 
stand that  the  whole  should  appear  to  the  uncivilised 
spectator  as  the  work  of  evil  spirits.' 

Speaking  of  the  Ahts  in  North-west  America,  it  is 
umloubtedly  a  fact,  says  Mr.  Sproat,  ^  '  that  many  of  the 
sorcerers  themselves  thoroughly  believe  in  their  own 
supernatural  powers,  and  are  able,  in  their  preparations 

'  Pulynesian  Rosoardics,  vol.  ii.  p.         ^  Scones  and  Studies  of  Savage  Life, 
220.  p.  170. 

^  Siberl;i,  p.  124. 


FASTING. 


1r  «• 


and  practices,  to  oiulure  excessive  fatiyue,  want  of  food, 
and  intense  prolonged  mental  excitement.' 

Dobritzhoffer  also  concludes  that  the  sorcerers  of  the 
Abipones  '  themselves  *  imagine  that  they  are  gifted  wiili 
superior  wisdom ;'  and  Miiller  also  is  convinced  that  tluy 
honestly  believe  in  themselves.'' 

We  should,  says  Martius,'  '  do  them  an  injustice  if 
we  regarded  the  Brazilian  sorcerers  as  mere  impostors,' 
though,  he  adds,  they  do  not  scruple  to  cheat  where  thoy 
can. 

Williams,  also,  who  was  by  no  means  disposed  to  take 
a  favourable  view  of  the  native  sorcerers,  admits  that  they 
believed  in  themselves,  a  fact  which  it  is  only  fair  to  bear 
in  mind."* 

This  self-deception  w^as  much  facilitated  b},  if  not 
mainly  due  to,  the  very  general  practice  of  fasting  by 
those  who  aspired  to  the  position  of  wizards.  The  Green- 
lander,  says  Cranz,'  w^lio  would  be  an  angelcok,  *  must 
retire  from  all  mankind  for  a  whilo  into  Gome  liolitary 
recess  or  hermitage^  must  spend  the  time  in  profound 
meditation,  and  call  upon  TorngarsuV  to  send  him  a 
torngak.  At  length,  by  abandoning  the  «  »nYerst.>  of  men, 
by  fasting  and  emaciating  the  body,  and  by  a  strenuous 
intenseness  of  thought,  the  ^  an's  imagination  grows  dis- 
tracted, so  that  blended  nages  of  men,  buasts,  and 
monsters  appear  before  him.  He  readily  thi-dcs  these 
are  real  spirits,  because  las  thoughts  are  full  of  spirits, 
and  this  throws  his  body  into  great  irregularities  and 
convulsions,  which  he  lauours  to  cherish  and  augment.' 

Among  the  North  American  Indians,"  when  a  boy  reaches 


'hi 


>   Loc.  clt.  vol,  ii.  p.  GS.  22G. 

"^  Hcs.  d.  Am.  Uri".  p.  80.  *  History  of   Grconlaiid.  vol.  i.    p. 

'  Von  d.  Ili'ditszus.  uiiler  den  Vv.  210, 

llriisilions,  p.  30.  "  Ciitlin's  North  Anicrirau  Indians, 

*  I'olyntsian  Eescarclics,  vol.  ii.  p.  vol.  i.  p.  36. 

8 


Il   > 


15  i 


FASTING. 


I 


ji* 


iiialurity,  he  loaves  lionic  and  absents  liiiiiself  for  some 
days,  during-  wliicli  lie  eats  nothing,  but  lies  on  the  ground 
thinking.  YvHien  at  length  he  falls  asleep  the  first  animal 
about  which  he  dreams  is,  he  thinks,  ordained  to  be  his 
special  protector  through  life.*  The  dream  itself  he  looks 
on  as  a  revelation.  Indeed  the  Redskins  fast  before  any- 
great  expedition,  thinking  that  during  their  dreams  they 
receive  indications  as  to  tbe  course  of  action  which  they 
should  pursue.'^ 

Among  the  Cherokees  also  fasting  is  veiy  prevalent, 
'  and  an  abstinence  of  sevim  days  renders  the  devotee 
famous.' ' 

The  Flaiheads  of  Oregon  have  a  very  similar  custom. 
Here,  however,  a  number  of  youths  retire  together. 
*  They  spend  three  day?  and  nights  in  the  performance 
of  these  rites,  without  eating  or  drinking.  By  the  languor 
of  the  body  and  the  high  excitement  of  the  imagination 
produced  during  this  time,  their  sleep  must  be  broken 
and  visited  by  visions  adapted  to  their  views.'  "*  These, 
therefore,  they  not  unnaturally  look  on  as  the  visits  of 
spirits. 

Those  who  by  continued  fasts  have  thus  purified  and 
cleared  their  minds  from  gross  ideas,  are  supposed  to  be 
capable  of  a  clearer  insight  into  the  future  than  that  which 
is  accorded  to  ordinary  men,  and  are  called  '  Saiotkatta ' 
by  the  Hurons,  and  *  Agotsinnachen '  by  the  Iroquois, 
terms  which  mean  literally  *  seers.'  ® 

In  Brazil,  a  young  man  who  wishes  to  be  a  paje  dwells 
ale  lie  in  some  mountain,  or  in  some  lone  place,  and  fasts 
for  two  yearSj  after  which  he  is  admitted  with  certain 


•  Lafitau,  he.  cit.  vol.  i.  pp.  267,  290,  Triboa,  p.  33, 
331,  and  especially  pp.  33G  and  370.  *  Dunn's  Oregon,  p.  329. 

2  C;irv.>r's  Travels,  p.  285.  *  Lafitau,  vol.  i.  p.  371. 

'  ^^'-TP^^''^     Eoport     on     Indian 


RELIGIOUS    DANCES. 


i;)5 


corcmonies  into  the  order  of  x^ajes.*  Ainon^^  tlio  ALipones  * 
and  Caribs  '  those  "vvlio  aspire  to  be  '  keebot '  proceed  in  a 
similar  manner.  Among  the  South  American  Indians  of 
the  Rio  de  la  Plata  the  Medicine-men  were  prepared  for 
their  office  by  a  long  fast.'*  Among  the  Lapi^s,  also, 
would-be  wizards  prepare  themselves  by  a  strict  fast.'^ 

At  first  sight  the  introduction  of  the  *  dance  '  may  seem 
out  of  place  here.  Among  savages,  however,  it  is  no  mere 
amusement.  It  is,  says  Kobertson,'"'  *  a  serious  and  im- 
portant occupation,  which  mingles  in  every  occurrence  of 
j)ublic  or  private  life.  If  any  intercourse  be  necessary 
between  two  American  tribes  the  ambassadors  of  the  one 
approach  in  a  solemn  dance  .  .d  present  the  calumet  or 
emblem  of  peace  ;  the  sachems  of  the  other  receive  it  with 
the  same  ceremony.  If  war  is  denounced  against  an 
enemy,  it  is  by  a  dance,  expressive  of  the  resentment  which 
they  feel,  and  of  the  vengeance  which  they  meditate.  If 
the  wrath  of  their  gods  is  to  be  appeased,  or  their  benefi- 
cence to  be  celebrated — if  they  rejoice  at  the  birth  of  a 
child,  or  mourn  the  death  of  a  friend,  they  have  dances 
appropriated  to  each  of  these  situations,  and  suited  to  the 
different  sentiments  with  which  they  are  then  animated. 
If  a  person  is  indisposed  a  dance  is  prescribed  as  the  most 
effectual  means  to  restore  him  to  health ;  and  if  he  him- 
self cannot  endure  the  fatigue  of  such  an  exercise,  the 
physician  or  conjurer  performs  it  in  his  name,  as  if  the 
virtue  of  his  activity  could  be  transferred  to  his  patient.' 

Among  the  Kols  of  Nagpore  Colonel  Dalton  ^  describes 


i  i» 


^i 


I  Ml! 


'Hi 


'  Martius,  Rcclit.  luitor  d.  Ur.  Ilras  p.  85. 

p.  30.  "  Eobcrtson's  Amorioa,    bk.    iv.  p. 

^  Dubritzhofftr,  vol.  ii.  p.  67.  133.     See  also  SoliooliTaft,  A/f.cj7.  vol. 

'■'  l)u  Tertre,  Ilistory  of  the  CariLby  iii.  p.  488,  on  the  Sacivd  Uauoosof  the 

Inlands,  p.  342.  Kcdskiiis. 

*  Lalitan,  vol.  i.  p.  83').  '  Traus.  Elbn.  Sue.  vul.  vi.  p.  30. 

*  Klomm,  Cult,  dcr  Mens.,  vol.   iii. 


15G 


RELIGIOUS   DANCES. 


I*'  1 


i 


M'      r- 


SMOKING    Ay    A    RELIGIOUS    FORM. 


r)7 


several  (iiinces  ■svliicli,  lie  says,  *  arc  all  iiiore  or  less  coii- 
iiectetl  with  some  religious  cereiuony.' 

The  Ostyalvs  also  perform  sacred  swortl  dances  in  honour 
of  their  ^od  Yelan.' 

ri<^.  18  rei^rosents  a  sacred  dance  as  i)ractised  by  the 
natives  of  Virginia.  It  is  very  interesting  to  see  hero  a 
circle  of  upright  stones,  which,  except  that  they  are  rudely 
carved  at  the  upper  end  into  the  form  of  a  head,  exactly 
reseniLle  our  so-called  Druidical  temples. 

The  idea  is  by  no  means  confined  to  mere  savages. 
Even  Socrates '  regarded  the  dance  as  a  part  of  religion, 
and  David,  we  know,  did  so  too.^ 

As  sacrificial  feasts  so  generally  enter  into  religious  cere- 
monials, we  need  not  wonder  that  smoking  is  throughout 
America  closely  connected  with  all  religious  ceremonies, 
just  as  incense  is  used  for  the  same  purpose  in  the  Old 
World.^  Among  the  Sonthals  also,  one  of  the  aboriginal 
tribes  of  India,  the  whole  of  their  religious  observances 
*  are  generally  performed  and  attended  to  by  the  votaries 
whilst  in  a  state  of  intoxication ;  a  custom  which  reminds 
us  of  the  worship  ol  Bacchus  among  the  Greeks  and 
Eomans.'^ 


11 


'<ll 


I? 


m 


m  I 


Hi  i ' 


'  Erman.vol.  ii.  p.  52.  *  Lafitan,  vol.  ii.  p.  133. 

2  Soc.  apud  Athon.lil).  It,  p.  G2S.         *  Tlio   Pcopla  of  Imlia,    l»y  J.   F. 
Quotid  in  Lufituu,  vol.  i.  p.  1200.  "Watsou  and  J,  W.  Kaye,  vol.  i.  p.  1. 

3  2  Sam.  vi.  14,  22. 


!   M 


:;l 


158 


EELiaiOUH   IDEAS   OF   AUSTliALIAiVS. 


CIIAPTER  V. 

TvELIGION    (continUCil), 


^li 


IV 


IN  tracing  up  tlic  griidiial  evolution  of  religions  beliefs 
wo  may  begin  with  the  Australians,  who  possess 
merely  certain  vague  ideas  as  to  the  existence  of  evil 
spirits,  and  a  general  dread  of  witchcraft.  This  belief 
cannot  be  said  to  influence  them  by  day,  but  it  renders 
them  very  unwilling  to  quit  the  camp  fire  by  night,  or  to 
sleep  near  a  grave.  They  have  no  idea  of  creation,  nor 
do  they  use  prayers ;  they  have  no  religious  forms,  cere- 
monies, or  worship).  They  do  not  believe  in  the  existence 
of  a  Deity,  nor  is  morality  in  any  way  connected  with 
their  religion,  if  it  can  be  so  called.  The  words  *  good ' 
or  '  bad  '  had  reference  to  taste  or  bodily  comfort,  and  did 
not  convey  any  idea  of  right  or  wrong.*  Another  curious 
notion  of  iuQ  Australians  is  that  white  men  are  blacks 
who  have  risen  from  the  dead.  This  notion  was  found 
among  the  natives  north  of  Sydney  as  early  as  1795,  and 
can  scarcely,  therefore,  be  of  missionary  origin.''  It  occurs 
also  among  the  negroes  of  Guinea.^  The  ideas  of  the 
Australians  on  the  subject,  how^ever,  seem  to  have  been 
very  various  and  confused.  They  had  certainly  no  general 
and  definite  view  on  the  subject. 

As  regards  the  North  Australians  wo  have  trustworthy 
accounts  given  by  a  Scotch  worn  an,   Mrs.  Thomson,  who 

'  Loc.  cit.  pp.  354,  355,  356.  '  Smith's  Guinea,  p.  215.     Bosmun, 

"  Collins'    English   Colony  in  N.S.     Pinkcrion's  Voyages,  vol.  xv.  p.  40. 
Wales,  p.  303. 


L 

\ 


who 


IIKMGIOX    OP   AUSTllALIANH.      VEDDAIIS, 


i:.o 


was  vvrockecl  on  the  Eastern  Prince  of  Walos  Tshind.  Ilor 
husband  and  the  rest  of  the  crew  were  drowned,  but  she 
was  saved  by  the  natives,  and  lived  with  them  nearly  five 
years,  until  '.ho  visit  of  the  '  Rattlesnake,'  when  she  escaped 
with  some  diiliculty.  On  the  whole  she  was  kindly  treated 
by  the  men,  though  the  women  were  long  jealous  of  her, 
and  behaved  towards  her  with  much  cruelty.  Tln^se  people 
have  no  idea  uf  a  S  ipreme  Bein{.  •  They  do  not  believe  in 
tlve  immortality  of  the  soul,  but  hold  that  they  arc  *  after 
death  changed  into  white  people  or  Europi;ans,  and  as 
such  pass  the  second  and  final  period  of  their  existence ; 
nor  is  it  any  part  of  their  creed  that  future  rewards  and 
punishments  are  awarded.'  ^ 

Mrs.  Thomson  was  supposed  to  be  the  ghost  of  Giom, 
a  daughter  of  a  man  named  Piaquai,  and  when  she  was 
teased  by  children,  the  men  would  often  tell  them  to  leave 
her  alone,  saying,  *  Poor  thing  !  she  is  nothing — only  a* 
ghost.'  This,  however,  did  not  prevent  a  man  named 
Boroto  making  her  his  wife,  which  shows  how  little  is 
actually  implied  in  the  statement  the  Australians  believe 
in  spirits.  They  really  do  no  more  than  believe  in  the 
existence  of  men,  somewhat  different  from,  and  a  little 
more  powerful  than,  themselves.  The  South  Australians 
as  described  by  Stejdiens  had  no  religious  rites,  ceremonies, 
or  worship ;  no  idea  of  a  Supreme  Being ;  but  a  vague 
dread  of  evil  spirits.* 

The  'Veddahs  of  Ceylon,  according  to  Davy,  believe  in 
evil  beings,  but  *  have  no  idea  of  a  supreme  and  beneficent 
God,  or  of  a  state  of  future  existence,  or  of  a  system  of 
rewards  and  punishments ;  and,  in  consequence,  they  are  of 
opinion  that  it  signifies  little  whether  they  do  good  or  evil.''* 


'  Mc  Gillivray's    Voj'ago    of    tlio 
Eattlcsnake,  vol.  ii.  p.  29. 
2  Lon.  cit.  p.  29. 


'  Ptcphons'  South  Aiistralia,  p.  78. 
*  Dav/s  Ceylon,  p.  118. 


!  1 


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11 


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IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-S) 


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11.25  i  1.4 


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20 


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9 


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Photographic 

Sciences 
Corporation 


23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  M&80 

(716)  873-4503 


;i 


|ii 


KiO 


PtlilLIfllOUS    IDfLVS    OF    THE    CALlFORNIANS. 


j'^lie  Indiiuis  of  California  have  been  well  described  by 
Father  13ae*,^ert,  a  Jesuit  riiissioniiry,  -who  livid  ainoii^  them 
no  less  than  seventeen  years.'  As  to  government  or 
reli<^ion,  he  says,'*  'neither  the  one  nor  the  other  existed 
iimonL,^  them.  They  had  no  ma<^istrates,  no  police,  and  no 
];iv;s  ;  idols,  temjiles,  religious  worship  orceremoniea  vV'>ro 
unknown  to  them,  and  they  neither  believed  in  the  tru(; 
and  only  Ood,  nor  adored  false  deities.  They  wcro  all 
equals,  and  everyone  did  as  ho  pleased,  without  ashing 
his  neighbour  or  earing  for  his  O'linion,  and  thus  all  vices 
and  misdeeds  remained  unpunished,  excepting  such  cases 
in  which  the  offended  individual  or  his  relations  took  the 
law  into  their  owni  hands  and  revenged  themselves  on  the 
guilty  part3\  The  different  tribes  represented  by  no 
means  communities  of  rational  beings,  win  submit  to  laws 
and  regulations  and  obey  their  superiors,  but  resembled 
far  more  herds  of  wild  swine,  -which  run  about  according 
to  their  own  liking,  being  tc»gether  to-day  and  scattered 
to-morrow,  till  they  meet  again  by  accident  at  some  future 
time. 

'  In  one  word,  the  Californians  lived,  salva  venia,  as 
though  th(^y  had  been  freethinkers  and  materialists. 

*  I  made  diligent  enquiries,  among  those  with  whom  I 
lived,  to  ascertain  whether  they  had  any  conception  of 
God,  a  future  life,  and  their  ovni  souls,  but  I  never  could 
discover  the  slightest  trace  of  such  a  knowledge.  Their 
language  has  no  words  for  "  God  "  and  "  soul,"  for  which 
reason*  the  missionaries  were  compelled  to  nso  in  their 
sermons  and  religious  instructions  the  Spanish  words  Dios 
and  alma.  It  could  hardly  be  otherwise  with  people  who 
thought  of  nothing  but  eating  and  merry-making   and 

'  N:ioIiricl)t(>n  von  dor  Amor.  ITall),         2  Smiihsonian    K«^port3,    18G4,    p. 
Civlilornio,  177:3.  Tran.slated  in  Siuilh-     390. 
souiau  Iloports,  18G!i— t. 


Uf  as 


)4,   p. 


CAMFOUNIANS.       r.ACII  APIXH. 


1(>I 


novel'  ivli<('l<'«l  on  surious  iinittors,  but  dismisHi'd  c\Gvy- 
tliii;^'  that  lay  beyond  the  niirrow  conipijss  of  their  l'ov- 
eeptions  with  the  phrase  aip';keriri,  ^vhich  nieaiis  "  vvlio 
knows  that 'J"  I  often  asked  them  whether  lliey  had 
never  put  to  themselves  the  cpiestion  who  mij^ht  bt;  llu' 
Creator  and  Preserver  oi  the  sun,  moon,  stars,  and  other 
objects  of  nature,  but  was  always  sent  home  witli  a  v;'ira, 
which  means  "no"  hi  their  language.'  They  liad,  how- 
ever, certain  sorcerers,  whom  tliey  believed  to  p.ossess 
power  over  diseases,  to  brin^j^  small-pox,  famine,  i^c,  and 
of  whom,  then^foro,  they  were  in  much  fear. 

Mr.  Giljbs,  speakinpc  of  the  Indians  livinj^  in  the  vaHeys 
drained  by  the  Sacramento  and  the  San  Joarpiin,  s  13's  : 
*  One  of  this  tribe,  who  had  been  for  three  or  four  years 
amonj^  the  whites,  and  accompanied  the  expedition,  on 
being  questioned  as  to  his  own  btdief  in  a  Deity,  ac- 
knowledged his  entire  ignorance  on  the  subject.  As 
regarded  a  future  state  of  any  kind,  he  was  equally  unin- 
formed and  inditfercnt ;  in  fact,  did  not  believe  in  any  for 
himself.  As  a  reason  Avhy  his  people  did  not  go  to  anollier 
country  after  death,  while  the  whites  might,  he  assigned 
that  the  Indians  burned  their  dead,  and  he  supposed  there 
was  an  end  of  them.'* 

The  religion  of  the  Bachapins,  a  Kaffir  tribe,  has  been 
described  by  Burchell.  They  had  no  outward  worship, 
nor,  so  far  as  he  could  learn,  any  private  devotion  ;  indeed, 
they  Lad  no  belief  in  a  beneficent  Deity,  though  they 
fe;ired  an  evil  Being  called '  Muleemo,'  or  *  Murimo.'  They 
had  no  idea  of  creation.  Even  when  Burchell  suggested  it 
to  them,  they  did  not  attribute  it  to  Muleemo,  but '  asserted 
that  every  thing  made  itself,  and  that  trees  and  herbage 
^*i'cw  by  their  own  will.'^  They  believed  in  sorcery,  and 
m  the  efficacy  of  amulets. 

'  ScluiliT.afl's  ludiiin  Tril(P,  vol.  ill.  p.  I07.        '■'  TniTtl.--,  vol.  '.'.  p.  GCQ 


I 


i\ 


:'i 


|«<4i! 


f 


;i 


i- ) 


i  '1 


ill 


1G2 


KArriRR. 


hl'i 


Dr.  Viindcrlveinp,  tlio  first  missionai'y  to  the  Kaffirs, 
*  never  could  perceive  tliat  they  had  any  relij^^ion,  or  any 
idea  of  the  existence  of  God.'  Mr.  Moffat  also,  ^vho  lived 
in  South  Africa  as  a  missionary  for  many  years,  says  that 
they  were  utterly  destitute  of  theoloj^ical  ideas ; '  and 
Dr.  Gardner,  in  his  *  Faiths  of  the  World,'  concludes  as 
follows  :'  '  From  all  that  can  be  ascertained  on  the  religiori 
of  the  Kaffirs,  it  seems  that  those  of  them  who  are  still 
in  their  heathen  statf*  have  no  idea,  (1)  of  a  Supreme 
Intelligent  Ruler  of  the  universe  ;  ('J)  of  a  Sabbath ;  (o) 
(yf  a  day  of  judgment ;  (4)  of  the  guilt  and  pollution  of 
sin;  (5)  of  a  Saviour  to  deliver  them  from  the  wrath  to 
come.' 

The  Rev.  Canon  Callaway  has  recently  published  a 
very  interesting  memoir  on  '  The  Religious  System  of  the 
Amazulu,'  who  are  somewhat  more  advanced  in  their 
religious  conceptions.  The  first  portion  is  entitled  *  Un- 
kulunkulu  or  the  Tradition  of  Creation.'  It  does  not, 
however,  appear  that  Unkulunkulu  is  regarded  as  a 
Creator,  or  even  as  a  Deity  at  all.  It  is  simply  the  first 
man,  the  Zulu  Adam.  Some  complication  arises  from  the 
fact  that  not  only  the  ancestor  of  all  mankind,  but  also 
the  first  of  each  tribe,  is  called  Unkulunkulu,  so  that 
there  are  many  Onkulunkulu,  or  TJnkulunkulus.  None  of 
them,  however,  have  any  of  the  characters  of  Deity ;  no 
prayers  or  sacrifices  are  offered  to  them  ;^  indeed,  they  no 
longer  exist,  having  been  long  dead.'  Unkulunkulu  was 
in  no  sense  a  Creator,'*  nor,  indeed,  is  any  special  power 
attributed  to  him.'  He,  i.e.  man,  arose  from  *  Umklanga,' 
that  is  *  a  bed  of  reeds,'  but,  how  he  did  so,  no  one  knew.^ 
Mr.  Callaway  agrees  with  Casalis,  that  '  it  never  (^iiiered 


'  Loc.  dt.  p.  260. 

*  Loc.  dt.  pp.  9,  25,  34,  75. 

'  Loii.dt.  pp.  15,  33.  62. 


*  Loi\cit.  p.  137. 

*  Loc.  dt.  p.  4S. 

'  U'C,  Ch.  pp.  9.  40, 


new.'' 


KAFFIRS. 


!(»:; 


tliu  lieiids  of  the  Zulus  thiit  the  eiirth  and  «lv}'  uiiylit  be 
the  work  of  an  invisible  Being.' '  One  native  thought  the 
white  men  made  the  world.'  They  had,  indeed,  no  idea  of, 
or  name  for,  God.'  "When  Moffat  endeavoured  to  explain 
to  a  chief  about  God,  he  exclaimed,  *  Would  that  I  could 
catch  it!  I  would  transfix  it  with  my  spear;'  yet  this 
was  a  man  *  whoso  judgment  on  other  subjects  would 
command  attention.'  * 

Yet  they  are  not  wiihout  a  belief  in  invisible  beings. 
This  is  founded  partly  on  the  shadow,  but  principally  on 
the  dream.  They  regard  the  shadow  as  in  some  way  the 
spirit  which  accompanies  the  body  (reminding  us  of  the 
similar  idea  among  the  Greeks),  and  they  have  a  curious 
notion  that  a  dead  body  casts  no  shadow.'* 

Still  more  important  has  been  the  influence  of  dreams. 
When  a  dead  father  or  brother  appears  to  a  man  in  his 
sleep,  he  does  not  doubt  the  reality  of  the  occurrence,  and 
hence  concludes  that  they  still  live.  Grandlfithers,  however, 
are  by  inverse  reasoning  regarded  as  generally  dead.^ 

Diseases  are  re*;arded  as  being  often  caused  by  the 
spirits  of  discontented  relatives.  In  other  respects  these 
spirits  are  not  regarded  as  possessing  any  special  powers  ; 
though  prayed  to,  it  is  not  in  such  a  manner  as  to  indicate 
a  belief  that  they  have  any  supernatural  influence,  and 
they  are  clearly  not  regarded  as  immortal.  In  some  cases 
departed  rehitives  are  regarded  as  reappearing  in  the  form 
of  snakes,^  which  may  be  known  from  ordinary  snakes  by 
certain  signs,^  such  as  their  frequenting  huts,  not  eaving 
mice,  and  showing  no  fear  of  man.  Sometimes  a  Luake 
is  recognised  as  the  representative  of  a  given  man  by  some 


'  Lnc.eiL  pp  A},  108. 

'  1j)c.  rif.  p.  ,'),'i. 

"  Loc.  cit.  pp.  107,  113,  ISr.. 

*  Loc.  cit.  p.  111. 


•  Loc.  cit.  p.  91. 

•  Inc.  cit.  p.  1  ft. 
'  Lnc.  cit.  p.  8. 

•  Loc.  cit.  pp.  IDS    !')!>. 


j..-' 

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!, 


10 1 


FETICIII.SM. 


,'iti 


i^jM 


if, « 


m 


I»oculIiLi'  iiijirk  or  scar,  tlio  absence  of  an  oye,  or  sonic  other 
similar  point  of  resemblance. 

In  such  cases  sacrifices  are  sometimes  offered  to  the 
snake,  and  Avlien  a  bullock  is  killed  part  is  put  away  for 
UiQ  use  of  tlio  dead  or  Amatoufjo,  •who  are  specially  invited 
to  the  feast,  whose  assistance  is  requested,  and  whoso 
wrath  is  deprecated.  Yet  this  can  hardly  be  called  *  an- 
cestor worship.'  The  dead  have,  it  is  tnie,  the  advantu^jje 
of  invisibility,  but  they  arc  not  regarded  as  omnipresent, 
omnipotent,  or  immortal.  There  are  even  means  by  which 
troublesome  spirits  may  be  destroyed  or  '  laid.'  ' 

In  such  cases  as  these,  then,  we  sec  relij^don  in  a  very 
low  phase ;  that  in  which  it  consists  merely  of  belief  in 
the  existence  of  evil  beings,  less  nniterial  than  we  are,  but 
mortal  like  ourselves,  and  if  more  powerful  than  we  are  in 
some  resi^ects,  even  less  so  in  others.    The  Fetichism  of  the 
negro  is  a  decided  step  in  advance.     Religion,  if  it  can  be 
so  called,  is  systematised,  and  greatly  raised  in  importance. 
Nevertheless  from  another  point  of  view  Fetichism  may 
almost  be   regarded  as  an  anti-religion.     For  the  negro 
believes  that  by  means  of  the  fetich  he  can  coerce  and 
control  his  deity.     In  fact  Fetichism  is  mere  witchcraft. 
We  have  already  seen  that  magicians  all  over  the  world 
think  that  if  thoy  can  obtain  a  part  of  an  enemy  the  pos- 
session of  it  gives  them  a  power  over  him.     Even  a  bit 
of  his  clothing  will  answer  the  purpose,  or,  if  this  cannot 
be  got,  it  seems  to  them  natural  that  an  injury  even  to  an 
image  would  affect  the  original.     That  is  to  say,  a  man  who 
can  destroy  or  torture  the  image,  thus  inflicts  pain  on  the 
original,  and,  this  being  magical,  is  independent  of  the 
power  of  that  original.    Even  in  Europe  and  in  the  elovenih 
century  some   unfortumito  Jews  were  accused  of  having 


^ 


•  Loe.  (if.  p.  \r,(). 


KKtillOKS. 


lO-j 


to  an 
1  Avlio 
L  the 
tlio 


tivni-- 


iiiunU'itHl  a  ccrtaiu  Bishop  Kbciliard  in  ibis  wjiy.  Tlwy 
iiiinle  a  wax  ima^e  of  him,  liad  it  baptised,  and  then  burnt 
it,  and  so  the  bishop  died. 

Lord  Kanics  says  that  at  the  time  of  (Aitherino  do 
Medicis  '  it  was  common  to  tako  the  resombhuu'o  of  enomit'S 
in  wax,  in  order  to  torment  them  by  roastini,'  the  lij^ure  at 
a  slow  fire,  and  priekin^  it  Avith  needles.' ' 

In  India,  says  Dubois,'^  'a  quantity  of  mud  is  mouldid 
into  small  fi'^ures,  on  the  breasts  of  whieh  they  write  the 
name  of  the  persons  whom  they  mean  to  annoy.  .  .  Tliey 
pieree  the  ima^n's  with  thorns,  or  mutilate  them,  so  as  to 
communicate  a  corresponding  injury  to  the  person  repre- 
sented.' 

Now  it  seems  to  me  that  Fetichism  is  an  extension 
of  this  belief.  The  negro  suj^poscs  that  the  i)ossession  of  a 
fetich  representing"  a  sjnrit,  makes  the  spirit  liis  servant. 
We  know  that  the  negroes  beat  their  fetich  if  their  prayers 
are  unanswered,  and  I  believe  they  seriously  think  they 
thus  inflict  suffering  on  the  actual  deity.  Thus  thi^ 
fetich  cannot  fairly  be  called  an  idol.  The  same  imago 
or  object  may  indeed  be  a  fetich  to  one  man  and  an  idol 
to  another ;  yet  the  two  are  essentially  different  in  their 
nature.  An  idol  is  indeed  an  object  of  worship,  while,  on 
the  contrary,  a  fetich  is  intended  to  bring  the  Deity 
within  the  control  of  man,  an  attempt  which  is  less  absurd 
than  it  at  first  sight  appears,  when  considered  in  con- 
nection with  their  low  religious  ideas. 

If  then  witchcraft  be  not  confused  with  religion,  as  I 
think  it  ought  not  to  be,  Fetichism  can  hardly  be  called  a 
religion  ;  to  the  true  Si)irit  of  which  it  is  indeed  entirely 
opposed. 

Anything  will  do  for  a  fetich  ;  it  need  not  represent  the 


'  Lord  Kamoh'  Ilistorv  of  ."Vran,  v^l.  iv.  f.  "201 


Inc.  c'lt.  p.  317. 


I 


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'■  is  *  ,     • 

lU  -hi 

.1-   -J  ,.  --■  '■ 


100 


FETICIIISM    IN    OTlIKll    irACF.ri. 


Immnii  figure,  tliongli  it  may  tlo  ro.  Even  an  oar  of 
iiuii/c  will  answer  llu;  purpose.  If,  said  an  intelli^'ent  ncj^'ro 
to  Bosnian,'  any  of  lis  is  'resolved  to  undertake  anytliiiij^ 
of  importance,  wo  first  of  all  search  out  a  god  to  prosper  our 
designed  undertaking;  and  going  out  of  doors  with  thin 
design,  take  the  first  creature  that  presents  itself  to  our 
eyes,  whether  dog,  cat,  or  the  most  contemi)tible  animal  in 
the  world,  for  our  god :  or  perhaps,  instead  of  that,  any 
inanimate  object  that  falls  in  our  way,  whether  a  stone, 
or  piece  of  wood,  or  anything  else  of  the  same  nature. 
This  iicw-chosen  god  is  immediately  in-csented  with  an 
ofiering,  which  is  accompanied  with  a  solemn  vow,  that  if 
he  pleaseth  to  prosper  our  undertakings,  for  the  future  we 
will  always  worship  and  esteem  him  as  a  god.  If  our 
design  prove  successful,  we  have  discovered  a  new  and 
assisting  god,  which  is  daily  presented  with  fresh  oft'er- 
ings ;  but  if  the  contrary  hap2)en,  the  new  god  is  rejected 
as  a  useless  tool,  and  consequently  returns  to  his  primitive 
estate.'  He  went  on  in  these  following  words,  *  We  make 
and  break  our  gods  daily,  and  consequently  are  the  masters 
and  inventors  of  what  we  sacrifice  to.' 

Even  Europeans,  extraordinary  as  it  may  seem,  believed. 
in  these  superstitions  delusions. 

The  term  Fetichism  is  generally  connected  with  the 
negro  race,  but  a  corresponding  state  of  mind  exists  in 
many  other  parts  of  the  world.  In  fact,  it  may  almost  bo 
said  to  be  universal,  since  it  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than 
witchcraft ;  and  in  the  most  advanced  countries — even  in 
our  own — the  belief  in  witchcraft  has  but  recently  been 
eradicated. 

The  Badagas  (Hindostan),  according  to  Metz,  aro 
still   in  a   '  condition  little  above  fetichism.      Anythin 


(f 


'  Bosman's      Guinea,     Pinkortou's     Loyor  (1701),  Aslley's  Collection,  vol. 
Voyages,  vol.    xvi.   p.  493.     See  also     ii.  p.  140. 


, 


I,, 


ip    -\  b  ijij 


IIINDOSTAX. 


Ji>; 


oi 


tlie 
ill 

be 

lau 
ill 

?cii 

arc 
ill" 

o 

vol. 


■with  thoiii  niiiy  luMoine  an  object  of  adcnilioii,  if  tlio 
head  man  or  the  vill;ij,'e  priest  sliuuM  take  a  fancy  to 
deify  it.  As  a  necessary  consequence,  however,  of  this 
state  of  thinj^s,  no  real  respect  is  entertained  towards  their 
dfjities,  and  it  is  not  an  uncommon  thing  to  hear  tho 
people  call  them  liars,  and  use  oitprobrions  epithct.s 
reypcctinfj  them.' '  Ajj^ain,  speaicin*^  of  the  Cliota  Niijjf- 
pore  tribes  of  Central  India,  Colonel  Dalton  observes  that 
certain  *  peculiarities  in  the  piii^anism  of  the  Oraoii,  and 
only  practised  by  Moondahs  who  live  in  the  siiine  vill:i;^() 
with  them,  appear  to  me  to  savour  thoroughly  of  fcii- 
chism.'" 

lu  Jeyporc'  the  body  of  a  small  musk-rat  is  regarded 
as  a  powerful  talisman.  *  The  body  of  this  animal,  dried, 
is  inclosed  in  a  case  of  brass,  silver,  or  gold,  according  to 
the  means  of  the  individual,  and  is  slung  around  the  neck, 
or  tied  to  the  arm,  to  render  the  individual  proof  against 
all  evil,  not  excepting  sword  and  other  cut,  musket- 
shot,  i^c' 

In  all  these  cas(.»s  the  tribes  seem  to  me  to  be  naturally 
in  the  state  of  Fetichism,  disguised  however  and  modified 
by  fragments  of  the  higher  Hindoo  religions,  which  they 
have  adopted  without  understanding. 

Though  the  Eedskins  of  North  America  have  r(»ached  a 
higher  stage  of  religious  development,  they  still  retain 
fetiches  in  the  form  of  *  medicine-bags.'  *  Everv  Indian  ' 
says  Catlin,*  '  in  his  primitive  state,  carries  his  medicine- 
bag  in  some  form  or  other,'  and  to  il  he  looks  for  i)ro- 
tection  and  safety.  The  nature  of  the  medicine-bag  is 
thus  determined.  At  fourteen  or  fifteen  years  of  age  tli(i 
boy   wanders    away    alone   upon   the    Prairie,  where   he 


'  Tlio  Tribes  of  the  Ncil-^lifnies, 
p.  GO. 

*  Trans.  Etlin.  Soc.  N.S.  vol.  vi. 
P.  '-V.l 


Shoi'tt,  Tran.s.   Etlin.  Soc.  vol.  vi. 


p.  278. 


Amerii'an  Indian.s,  vol.  i.  p.  3G. 


i 


I  i 


t  ■ 


i 
Mil 


••» 


1 


iri 


II 


KIM 


NORTn    AMKHICA. 


':'  1  ! 


iM'iusiiiis  two,  lliive,  fctiir,  or  evrn  live  »1;ivh,  l^iii;^  on  11h» 
{^toiumI  iiuisiii<^'  ami  lasliiij,'.  ilo  rt'inains  jiwalcL' as  Ion;; 
as  he  can,  but  wlicii  ho  sleeps  the  first,  animal  of  which  ho 
dreams  becomes  his  'medicine.'  As  soon  as  ixiHsihle  ho 
shoots  an  animal  of  the  species  in  (piestion,  and  makes  a 
lui'dieine-ba^'  of  the  sldn.  Unlike  the  fickle  Ne<;ro,  how- 
(iver,  the  Itedskin  never  chanjjfes  his  fetich.  To  liini  it  be- 
comes an  emblem  of  success,  like  the  shield  of  the  (J reek, 
or  the  more  modern  sword,  and  to  lose  it  is  dis;^race.  The 
C'ohnnbian  Indians  have  small  flfjures  in  the  form  of  a 
quadruped,  bird,  or  fish.  These,  thou|^'h  called  idols,  arii 
rather  fetiches,  because,  as  all  disease  is  attributed  to 
them,  -when  anyone  is  ill  they  are  beaten  to<fether,  and 
the  first  which  loses  a  tooth  or  claw  is  supposed  to  be  the 
culprit.* 

In  China,-  also,  '  If  the  peoide,  after  lon^  prayinjjf  to 
Iheir  images,  do  not  obtain  what  they  desire,  as  it  often 
happens,  they  turn  them  off  as  imi)otent  gods  ;  others  use 
them  in  a  most  reproachful  manner,  loading  them  with 
hard  names,  and  sometimes  with  blows.  "  IIow^  now,  dog 
of  a  spirit !  "  say  they  to  them  ;  "  we  give  you  a  lodging  in  a 
magnificent  temple,  we  gild  you  handsomely,  feed  you  well, 
and  offer  incense  to  you  ;  yet,  after  all  this  care,  you  arc  so 
ungrateful  as  to  refuse  us  what  we  ask  of  you."  IIereu2)on 
they  tie  this  imago  with  cords,  pluck  him  down,  and  drag 
him  along  the  streets,  through  all  the  mud  and  dunghills, 
to  punish  him  for  the  expense  of  perfume  which  they  have 
thrown  away  upon  him.  If  in  the  meantime  it  happens 
that  they  obtain  their  request,  then,  with  a  great  deal  of 
ceremony,  they  wash  him  clean,  carry  him  back,  and 
place  him  in  his  niche  again  ;  where  they  fall  down  to 
him,  and  make  excuses  for  what  they  have  done.     "  In  a 


»  Dunn's  Oropon,  p.  12.'). 

*  Aetlfj's  Cullt'Clion  of  Voyngi^s,  vol.  iv.  p.  218. 


riNNA.       Sir.KKIA. 


Id!) 


n  ii 


initli,"  sav  tliov,  "we  were  a  little  too  liasiv,  ns  wrll  as 
yoii  wore  Hoiiicwluit  too  loii;^'  in  your  ^naiit.  Wliy  should 
you  h\'\\v^  this  beading'  on  yourself i*  J^il  wliai  is  done 
cannot  be  now  undone;  let  us  not  therefore  think  of  it 
any  more.  If  you  will  foig'ct  what  is  past,  we  will  <^qld 
you  over  n<jjain.'" 

Tallaa,  speakinj^  of  the  Ostiaks,  states  that,  '  ^Fal^iv  la 
veneration  et  Ic  respect  qu'ils  ont  pour  leurs  idoles, 
unilheur  a  elles  lorscju'il  4irrivo  uu  malheur  s\  TOstiak,  et 
que  ridole  n'y  remedie  pas.  II  la  jette  alors  par  terre,  la 
Irappe,  hi  maltraite,  et  hi  brise  en  nioreeaux.  (N  tie 
correction  arrive  frequennnent.  Cette  colere  est  coniiuuue 
a  tons  les  penples  idohltres  de  hi  Siberie.'  * 

In  Whydali  (W.  Africa),  and  I  believe  ^iMierally,  the 
iiej^Toes  will  not  cat  the  animal  or  plant  .vhieli  they 
have  chosen  for  their  fetich.' 

In  Issini,  on  the  contrary,  *eatin<,'  the  fetich'  is  a 
solemn  ceremony  on  taking  an  oath,  or  as  a  token  of 
friendship.' 

Fetichism,  strictly  speaking,  has  no  temples,  idols, 
priests,  sacrifices,  or  prayer.  It  involves  no  belief  in 
creation  or  in  a  future  life,  and  a  fortiori  none  in  a  state 
of  rewards  and  punishments.  It  is  entirely  independent 
of  morality.  In  most,  however,  of  the  powerful  negro 
monarchies  religion  has  made  some  progress  in  organif-ia- 
tion ;  but  though  we  find  both  sacred  buildings  and  priests, 
the  religion  itself  shows  little,  if  any,  intellectual  im- 
provement. 

The  next  stage  in  religious  progress  is  that  which  may 
be  called  Totemism.  The  savage  does  not  abandon  his 
belief  in  fetichism,  from  which  indeed  no  race  of  men  has 
yet  entirely  freed  itself,  but  he  superinduces  on  it  a  belief 

•  Piillas's  Voyapos,  vol.  iv.  p.  70.  p.  411. 

*  riiillips,    1G93.     Astlcy,   vol.   ii.         *  Loycr,  1701, /w.  aV.  p.  43G. 


^.it' 


yQ^ 


Ml 


^1 


t'z 


'       :  ? 


170 


TOTKMISM. 


m  ( 


in  beini^s  of  a  hij^'licr  and  loss  material  iialuro.  Tii  this 
Ktnj,'()  ovcrythln;^  may  bo  wor.sliipiMMl — trees,  Htonos,  rivers, 
mouiitaiiiM,  the  heavenly  bodies,  plants,  and  animals. 

How  ready  aava;jfes  are  to  deify  oltjoets,  both  animate; 
and  inanimate,  I  shall  presently  brin«;  forward  abundant 
evidence ;  for  tho  i)resont,  I  will  only  quote  the  following 
story  from  Lander's  *  Niger  Expedition.' 

In  most  African  towns  and  villaj^es,  Rays  Lander,'  *  t 
was  treated  as  a  demi;^od.'  Ou  one  occasion,  liavlrjj 
landed  at  a  village  which  white  men  had  never  visited 
before,  his  party  caused  great  terror.  When  they  suc- 
ceeded in  establishing  a  communication  with  the  natives, 
the  chief  gave  the  following  account  of  what  had 
taken  place.  *A  few  minutes,''  he  said,  *  after  you  liist 
lan<led,  one  of  my  people  came  to  me  and  said,  that  a 
number  of  strange  jieople  had  arrived  at  the  market-place. 
I  sent  him  back  again  to  get  as  near  to  you  as  he  could, 
to  hear  what  you  intended  doing.  He  soon  after  returned 
to  me  and  said  that  you  spoke  a  language  which  ho  could 
not  understand.  Not  doubting  it  was  your  intention  to 
attack  my  village  at  night  and  carry  off  my  people,  I 
desired  them  to  get  ready  to  fight.  We  were  all  prepared 
and  ready  to  kill  you,  and  came  down  breathing  vengeance 
and  slaughter,  suj^posing  that  you  were  my  enemies,  and 
liad  landed  from  the  opposite  side  of  the  river.  But  when 
you  came  to  meet  us  unarmed,  and  we  saw  your  whito 
faces,  we  were  all  so  frightened  that  we  could  not  j)vlI\  our 
bows,  nor  move  hand  or  foot;  and  when  you  drew  near 
me,  and  extended  your  hands  towards  me,  I  felt  my  heart 
faint  within  me,  and  believed  that  you  were  "  children  of 
Heaven,'*  and  had  dropped  from  the  skies.' 

The  worship  of  animals  is  very  prevalent  among  races 

'  R.  and  J.  Lander's  Niger  Expedition,  vol.  iii.  p.  198. 
•  Loc.  cit.  vol.  iii.  p.  78. 


AMMAIi    WOKSIIIP. 


171 


I 


rivers, 

4. 

iiiiiiiiic 
iindaut 
lowiiij^ 

cr,'  '  I 
Ir.ivli'^ 
viisiteil 
•y  siic- 
liitivca, 
i  liinl 
oil  lirst 
tluii   II 

!  could, 
iturucd 

could 
iion  to 
3ple,  I 
cpared 
geauce 
OS,  and 
i  wlicii 

wliito 
nil  our 
w  noar 
f  heart 
Iron  of 

races 


of  men  in  a  soniewluit  lii^lu'r  h(;i<.;o  of  elvilisiitiou  lli;ni 
that  characterised  by  Fetichisin,  riutiirch,  long  ugo, 
Huggested  that  it  arose  from  the  cuatom  of  representing 
aninuils  upon  standards;  and  it  is  possible  that  some  few 
cases  may  be  duo  to  this  cause,  though  it  is  manifestly 
inapplicable  to  the  majority,  because  animal  worship  nuich 
precedes  the  use  of  standards  in  tho  scale  of  human  de- 
velopment. Diodorus  explains  it  by  the  myth  that  the 
gods,  being  at  one  time  hard  pressed  by  the  giants,  con- 
cealed themselves  for  a  while  under  the  form  of  animals, 
>Nhi('h  in  conse(pience  became  sacred,  and  were  worship[>ed 
by  men.     This  absurd  theory  needs  no  refutation. 

Another  ancient  suggestion  was  that  tin*  J'igy[»lian 
chiefs  wore  helmets  in  the  form  of  animals'  heads,  and 
that  hence  these  animals  were  worshipped.  This  theory, 
however,  will  not  apply  generally,  because  the  other  races 
which  worship  animals  do  not  use  such  helmets,  antl  even 
in  Egypt  there  can  bo  little  doubt  that  the  worship  of 
aninuils  preceded  the  use  of  helmets. 

Plutarch,  as  already  mentioned,  supposed  that  the  croco- 
dile was  worshipped  because,  having  no  tongue,  it  was 
a  type  of  the  Deity,  who  makes  laws  for  nature  by  his 
mere  will !  This  far-fetched  cxplan.ation  shows  an  entire 
misconception  of  savage  nature. 

The  worship  of  animals  is,  however,  susceptible  of  a 
very  simple  explanation,  and  has,  I  believe,  really  originated 
from  the  practice  of  naming,  first  individuals,  and  then 
their  families,  after  particular  animals.  A  family,  for 
instance,  •which  was  called  after  the  bear,  would  come  to 
look  on  that  animal  first  with  interest,  then  with  respect, 
and  at  length  with  a  sort  of  awe. 

Tho  habit  of  calling  children  after  some  animal  or  plant 
is  very  common. 

The  Tssinesc  of  Guinea  name  their  children  *  after  some 


4' 


Mr 

atl 


I' 


•i!i:i 


!^ 


i* 


172 


ORIGIN    OF   ANIMAL    WORSHir. 


('  :  I- 


\h   'd 


'I 


beast,  trco,  or  fruit,  according,'  to  tLeir  fancy.  Souk  times 
they  call  it  after  tlieir  fetich  or  some  white,  avIio  is  a 
Mingo,  that  is  frien*  to  them.'' 

The  Hottentots  also  generally  named  their  children  after 
some  animal.'^  In  Congo '  *  some  form  of  food  is  forbidden 
to  everyone  :  in  some  it  is  a  fish,  in  others  a  bird,  and  so 
on.  This  is  not,  however,  expressly  stated  to  be  connected 
with  the  totem.' 

In  China  also  the  name  is  frequently  '  that  of  a  flower, 
animal,  or  such  like  thing.'*  In  Australia  we  seem  to  find 
the  totem,  or,  as  it  is  there  called,  kobong,  ahnost  in  the 
very  moment  of  deification.  Each  family,  says  Sir  G.  Grey,'' 
*  jidopts  some  animal  or  vegetable,  as  tlieir  crest  or  sign, 
or  kobong  as  they  call  it.  I  imagine  it  more  likely  that 
these  have  been  named  after  the  families,  than  that  the 
families  have  been  named  after  them. 

*A  certain  mysterious  connection  oxists  between  the 
family  and  its  kobong,  so  that  a  member  of  the  fiimily  will 
never  kill  an  animal  of  the  species  to  which  his  kobong 
belongs,  should  he  find  it  asleep ;  indeed,  he  always  kills  it 
reluctantly,  and  never  without  affording  it  a  chance  of 
escape.  This  arises  from  the  family  belief,  that  some  one 
individual  of  the  species  is  their  nearest  friend,  to  kill 
whom  would  be  a  great  crime,  and  to  be  carefully  avoided. 
Similarly  a  native  who  has  a  vegetable  for  his  kobong,  may 
not  gather  it  under  certain  circumstances,  and  at  a 
particular  period  of  the  year.' 

Here  we  see  a  certain  feeling  for  the  kobong  or  totem, 
though  it  does  not  amount  to  worship.'^     In  America,  on 


ilsL; 


'  As*.ioy's  Collection  of  Vuyngop,  vol. 
ii.  p.  436." 

'^  Ihid.  vol.  iii.  p.  357. 
«  Ibid.  p.  282. 


*  Ibid.  vol.  ir.  p.  91. 

*  Two  Expeditious  in  Australia,  vol. 
p.  2"8. 

«  See  Eyre,  vol.  ii.  p.  328. 


ictiincs 
LO  is  a 

}n  after 

•bicldeti 

and  so 

iiiecteJ 

flower, 
to  find 
in  tlio 
.  Grey,"* 
)r  sij^ii, 
dy  that 
hat  the 

sen  the 
lily  will 
kobong 

iills  it 
ince  of 
me  one 

to  kill 
mided. 
^,  may 
at   a 

totem , 


ca,  on 


iilia,  vol. 


REDSKINS.       KnONDS. 


1 


/  •> 


the  other  hand,  it  has  developed  into  a  veritable 
religion. 

The  totem  of  the  RedsLins,  says  Schoolcraft,'  Ms  a 
i:>ynibol  of  the  name  of  the  progenitor, — generally  some 
qnadrnped,  or  bird,  or  other  object  in  the  animal  kingdom, 
which  stands,  if  we  may  so  express  it,  as  tlio  surname  of 
the  family.  It  is  always  some  animated  object,  and  seldom 
or  never  derived  from  the  inanimate  class  of  nature.  Its 
significant  importance  is  derived  from  the  fact,  that 
individuals  unhesitatingly  trace  their  lineage  from  it. 
By  whatever  names  they  may  be  called  during  their  life- 
time, it  is  the  totem,  and  not  their  personal  name,  that  is 
recorded  on  the  tomb,  or  adjedatig,  that  makes  the  place 
of  burial.  Families  are  thus  traced  when  expanded  into 
bands  or  tribes,  the  multiplication  of  which,  in  North 
America,  has  been  very  great,  and  has  increased,  in  like 
ratio,  the  labours  of  the  ethnologist.  The  turtle,  the  bear, 
and  the  w^olf  appear  to  have  been  primary'  and  honoured 
totems  in  most  of  the  tribes,  and  bear  a  siji-iiificant  rank 
to  the  traditions  of  the  Iroquois  and  Lenapis,  or  Delawares  ; 
and  they  are  believed  to  have  more  or  less  prominency  in 
the  genealogies  of  all  the  b"'bes  who  are  organised  on  the 
tctemic  principle,' 

Thus  again  the  Osages^  believe  themselves  to  be  de- 
scended from  a  beaver,  and  consequently  will  not  kill  that 
animal. 

So  also  among  the  Khonds  of  India,  the  different  tribes 
*take  their  designation  from  various  animals,  as  the  bear 
tribe,  owl  tribe,  deer  tribe,'  &c.  &c. 

The  Kols  of  Nagpore  also  are  divided  into  *  keelis  '  or 
clans,  generally  called  after  animals,  which  in  consequence 

'  Soliooleraft'sln.liiin  Tim1)CR,vo1.  ii.  -  Sdinoloraft,  vol.  i.  p.  .",20. 

p.  41).  See  iilbu  Luduui,  vul.  i.  pp.  IGl,         *  lOarly  Kacos  of  .Siolliuid,  vol.   ii. 

4G7.  r-  I'J'J- 


^ 


t 


il 


'V 


'    M 


I7i 


BECntJANAS. 


\   li 


tliey  do  not  oat.     Tims  the  eel,  Jiawk,  and  heron  tribe 
abstain  respectively  from  the  flesh  of  these  animals.* 

In  Southern  Africa  the  Bechuanas  are  subdivided  into 
men  of  the  crocodile,  men  of  the  llsh,  of  the  monkey,  of 
the  buffalo,  of  the  elephant,  porcupine,  lion,  vine,  and  so 
on.  No  one  dares  to  eat  the  flesh,  or  wear  the  skin,  of  the 
animal  to  the  tribe  of  which  he  belongs.  In  this  case 
however,  the  totems  are  not  worshipped.'' 

If,  moreover,  we  bear  in  mind  that  the  deity  of  a  savage 
is  merely  a  being  of  a  slightly  different  nature  from— and 
generally  somewhat  more  powerful  than — himself,  we 
shall  at  once  see  that  many  animals,  such  as  the  bear  or 
elephant,  fulfil  in  a  great  measure  his  conception  of  a 
Dcit}'-. 

This  is  still  more  completely  the  case  with  nocturnal 
animals,  such  as  the  lion  and  tiger,  where  the  effect  is 
heightened  by  a  certain  amount  of  mystery.  As  the 
savage  crouching  at  night  by  his  camp  fire,  listens  to 
the  cries  and  roars  of  the  animals  prowling  round,  or 
watches  them  stealing  like  shadows  round  and  round 
among  the  trees,  it  would  surely  be  diificult  for  him  to 
resist  the  feeling  that  there  is  something  mysterious 
about  them  ;  and  if  in  his  estimate  of  animals  he  errs  in 
one  direction,  we  j)erhaps  have  fallen  into  the  opposite 
extreme. 

As  an  object  of  worshij),  however,  the  serpent  is  pre- 
eminent among  animals.  Not  only  i«!  it  malevolent  and 
mysterious,  but  it?  bite — so  trifling  in  appearance  and 
yet  so  deadly — producing  fatal  effects,  rapidly,  and  ap- 
parently by  no  adequate  means,  suggests  to  the  savage 
almosb  irresistibly  the  notion  of  somcihing  divine,  accord- 
ing to  his   notions   of  divinity.     There  were  also  some 


'  Diiltou,  Trans.  Eflin.Soc.  N.S.  vol.         ■  The  EasutoH,  Rov.  E.  CiLsalis,  p. 
vi.  1-.  yC.  211. 


n  tribe 

• 

ied  into 
ikey,  of 
and  so 
,  of  the 
lis  case 

.  savage 
ni — and 
self,  we 
bear  or 
on  of  a 

octurnal 

effect  is 

As   the 

tens   to 

>und,  or 

round 

him  to 

sterious 

13  errs  in 

opposite 

is  ])ve- 
3nt  and 
ice  and 
and  ap- 

savage 
accord- 
30  some 

Ciisalis,  p. 


RERrEXT-WORSniP. 


175 


lower,  but  powerful,  considerations  which  tended  greatly 
to  the  development  of  serpent-worship.  The  animal  is 
long-lived  and  easily  kept  in  captivity;  hen  e  the  same 
individual  might  be  preserved  for  a  long  time,  and  easily 
exhibl  ed  at  intervals  to  the  multitude.  In  other  respects 
the  serpent  is  a  convenient  god.  Thus  in  Guinea,  where 
the  sea  and  the  serpent  were  the  principal  deities,  the 
priests,  as  Bosman  expressly  tells  us,  encouraged  offerings 
to  the  serpent  rather  than  to  the  sea,  because,  in  the  latter 
case,  *  there  happens  no  remainder  to  be  left  for  them.' ' 

We  are  indebted  to  Mr.  Fergusson  for  a  special  work  on 
tree  and  serpent-worship.  I  cannot,  however,  agree  with 
my  friend,  in  supposing  that  the  beauty  of  the  serpent,  or 
the  brilliancy  of  its  eye,  had  any  part  among  the  causes  of 
its  original  deification.  Nor  do  I  believe  that  serpent- wor- 
ship is  to  be  traced  up  to  any  common  local  origin,  but, 
on  the  contrary,  that  it  sprang  up  spontaneously  in  many 
places,  and  at  very  different  times.  In  considering  the 
wide  distribution  of  serpent-worship,  we  must  remeinbci* 
that  in  the  case  of  the  serpent  we  apply  one  name  to  a 
whole  order  of  animals ;  and  that  serpents  occur  all  over 
the  world,  except  in  very  cold  regions.  On  the  contrary, 
the  lion,  the  bear,  the  bull,  have  less  extensive  areas,  and 
consequently  their  worship  could  never  be  so  general. 
If,  however,  we  compare,  as  we  ought,  serpent-worship 
with  quadruped-worship,  or  bird-worship,  or  sun-worship, 
we  shall  find  that  it  has  no  exceptionally  wide  area. 

Mr.  Fergusson,  like  previous  writers,  is  surprised  to  find 
that  the  serpent-god  is  frequently  regarded  as  a  beneficent 
Being.  Midler,  in  his  Scientific  Mythology,  has  en- 
deavoured to  account  for  this  by  the  statement  that  the 
serpent  typified,  not  only  barren,  impure,  nature,  but  also 
youth  and  health.  This  is  not,  I  think,  the  true  exj^hinatiun. 

•  Piiikerton,  vol.  xvi.  p.  000. 


:  A  I 


<Cli 


»«' 


!  11 


ii' 


II, 

Ml 


17G 


ASIA.      AFRICA. 


It  may  be  tlio  sorpont-goJ  commonceJ  as  a  inalevoleiit 
being,  wlio  was  flattered,  as  cruel  rulers  always  are,  and 
that,  in  process  of  time,  this  flattery,  which  was  at  first  the 
mere  exjiression  of  fear,  came  to  be  an  article  of  faith. 
If,  moreover,  the  totemic  origin  of  serpent-worship,  as 
above  suggested,  be  the  correct  one,  the  serpent,  liko 
other  totemic  deities,  would,  from  its  origin,  have  a  benevo- 
lent character. 

As  mentioned  in  Mr.  Fergusson's  work,  the  serpent  was 
worshipped  anciently  in  Egypt,'  in  India,^  Phoenicia,' 
Babylonia,*  Greece,'*  as  well  as  in  Italy,''  whei'O,  however, 
it  seems  not  to  have  prevailed  much. 

We  may  now  pass  on  to  those  cases  in  which  the  serpent 
is  now  worsliipped,  or  was  so  until  lately.  Among  the 
Lithuanians  *  every  family  entertained  a  real  serpent  as  a 
household  god.'' 

In  Asia  evidence  of  serpent-worship  has  been  found  in 
Persia,^  Cashmere,^  Cambodia,  Thibet,'"  India,"  CL'na, 
(traces),'^  Ceylon,'^  and  among  the  Kalmucks.'* 

In  Africa  the  serpent  was  worshipped  in  some  parts  of 
Upper  Egypt,'^  and  in  Abyssinia. '°  Among  the  negroes  on 
the  Guinea  coast  it  used  to  be  the  principal  deity." 


'  Ilorodotus,  Euterpe,  74. 

2  Tortullian,  de  Prescript.  Ilerctleo- 
rum,  c.  xlvii.  Epiphanius,  lib.  1, 
lltros,  xxxvii.  p.  267,  et  seq. 

*  Eusobius,  Prse.  Evan.,  vol.  i.  p.  9. 
Maurice,  Ind.  Antiq.,  vol.  vi.  p.  273. 

*  Bc'l  and  the  Dragon,  v.  23. 

*  Pausanias,  vol.  ii.  pp.  137,  175. 
^11  an  de  Animal,  xvi.  39.  Ilcrodo- 
tus,  viii.  p.  41. 

«  ^lian,  Var.  Hist.,  ix.  p.  i  iJ.  PrO' 
portius,  Elog.  viii.  p.  4. 

'  Lord  Karnes'  History  of  Man,  vol. 
iv.  p.  193. 

•*  Mogruil,  156,  Windisclimann,  37, 
Slu'ili  Namcli,  Atkinson's  Translation, 
p.  14. 

^  Asiati-'  Eos.  vol.  xv.  pp.  24,  25. 
Aj-ccn  Akbaree,  Gkuhviu's  Trans.,  p. 


4. 

Serpent 


137. 

'"  Iliouen-Tlisang,  vol.  i.  p 
"  F<rgns.son's    Tree    and 

Worship,  p.  56. 

"  History  and  Doctrine  of  Buddhism 
in  Ceylon,  Uphani. 

'•  Klomni,  Cult,  der  Mens.,  \ol.  iii. 
p.  202. 

'*  Pococko,  Pinkcrton's  Voyages, 
vol.  XV.  p.  269. 

'*  Dillmann  in  Zeitseh.  der  Mor- 
genlandischen  Gesells.  vol.  vii.  p.  338. 
Ludolf.  Comment,  vol.  iii.  p.  284 ; 
Bruce's  Travels,  vol.  iv.  p.  35. 

"  Astley's  Voyages,  vol.  iii.  p.  489 , 
Burton,  vol.  ii.  p.  139  ;  Smith,  loc.  cit. 
p.  195. 


1 


AFRICA. 


1  11 -t 

J  /  4 


^ 


volent 
e,  and 
rst  the 
faith, 
lip,  as 
it,  like 
)enevo- 

3nt  %va3 
Diiiciii,' 
owever, 

I  sorx^ent 
ong  the 
•ent  as  a 

found  ill 
Ch'na, 


par 


ts  of 


urrocs  on 

|17 


p.  4. 
Iiid    Serpent 


jfBudilliism 

Jns.,  \ol,  iii. 
|a    Voyages, 

.  der  Mor- 

vii.  p.  338. 

|i.    p.    284; 

35. 

iii.  p.  489, 

liith,  ioc.  cit. 


Sniitli,  in  his  Voyn^^e  to  Guinea,'  says  that  the  natives 
*  are  all  Pagans,  and  worship  three  sorts  of  deities.  The 
first  is  a  large  beautiful  kind  of  snake,  which  is  inoffensive 
in  its  nature.  These  are  kept  in  fittish-houses,  or  churchos, 
built  for  that  purpose  in  a  grove,  to  whom  they  sacrifice 
great  store  of  hogs,  sheep,  fowls,  and  goats,  «&:c.,  and  if 
not  devoured  by  the  snake,  are  sure  to  be  taken  care  of 
by  the  fetish-nion  or  pagan  priests.'  From  Liberia  to 
Benznela,  if  not  farther,  the  serpent  Avas  the  princii>al 
deity,*  and,  as  elsewhere,  is  regarded  as  being  on  the  whoh; 
beneficent.  To  it  they  resort  in  times  of  drought  and 
sickness,  or  other  calamities.  No  negro  would  intentional 3^ 
injure  a  serpent,  and  anyone  doing  so  by  accident  would 
assuredly  be  put  to  death.  Some  English  sailors  once 
having  killed  one  which  they  found  in  their  house,  were 
furiously  attacked  by  the  natives,  who  killed  them  all,  and 
burned  the  house.  All  over  the  country  are  small  huts, 
built  on  purpose  for  the  snakes,^  which  are  attended  and 
fed  by  old  women.  These  snakes  are  frequently  consulted 
as  oracles. 

In  addition  to  these  small  huts  were  temples,  wdiich, 
judged  by  a  negro  standard,  were  of  considerable  magni- 
licence,*  with  large  courts,  spacious  apartments,  and 
numerous  attendants.  Each  of  these  temples  had  a 
special  snake.  That  of  Whydah  was  supposed  to  have 
appeared  to  the  army  during  an  attack  on  Ardra.  It  was 
regarded  as  a  presage  of  victory,  which  so  encouraged  the 
soldiers  that  they  were  perfectly  successful.  Hence  this 
fetich  was  reverenced  beyond  all  others,  and  an  annual 
pilgrimage  was  made  to  its  temple  with  much  cerein  :>ny. 
It  is  rather  suspicious  that  any  young  women  who  may  be 

'   Smith's  Voyacro  to  duiiica.  p.  lOo.  Smith,  hr.  c't.  p.  195. 

P<'o  also  IJosman,  rinktrton's  Vuyagi's,  *  Astlcy,  /oc.  cit.  pp.  27,  32. 

Vol.  xvi.  p.  494,  et  srq.  *  Ibid.  p.  2y, 

'  IJusman,  luc.    cit.    pp. 

0 


il 


494-199. 


i 

I 

ii'j 

Mb  'W'     ' 

In 

m 

li 

j^l 

Wi 

ii 

i 

1 

178 


AFRICA. 


ill  arc  taken  ofiF  to  tlic  snake's  house  to  be  cured.  For  this 
questionable  service  the  attendants  charge  a  high  jDrice  to 
the  parents. 


AGOYK,  AN  IDOL  OF  WHiDDAH,    (Astley's  CoUection  of  Voyages.) 

It  is  observable  that  the  harmless  snakes  only  are  thus 
worshipped.     '  Agoje,'  the  fetich  of  Whydah,  which  has 


MADAGASCAR.      POLYNESIA.      AMKRICA. 


171) 


iges.) 


are 


thus 


tliicli  has 


serpents  and  lizards  coming  oiif:  of  its  head  '  (fif^.  10), 
presents  a  remarkable  similarity  to  some  of  the  Hindoo 
idols. 

The  KafHrs  of  South  Africa  have  a  j^cncral  belief  that 
the  spirits  of  their  ancestors  appear  to  them  in  the  form  of 
serpents.* 

Ellis  mentions  that  in  Madagascar  the  natives  regard 
them  *  with  a  sort  of  superstition.'  ^ 

In  Feejoe,  '  the  god  *  most  generally  known  is  Ndongei, 
who  seems  to  be  an  impersonation  of  the  abstract  idea  of 
eternal  existence.  He  is  the  subject  of  no  emotion  or 
sensation,  nor  any  appetite  except  hunger.  The  serpent — 
the  world-wide  symbol  of  eternity — is  his  adopted  shrine. 
Some  traditions  represent  him  with  the  head  and  part  of 
the  body  of  that  reptile,  the  rest  of  his  form  being  stone, 
emblematic  of  everlasting  and  unchangeable  duration. 
He  passes  a  monotonous  existence  in  a  gloomy  cavern ; 
evincing  no  interest  in  anyone  but  his  attendant,  Uto, 
and  giving  no  signs  of  1  fe  beyond  eating,  answering  his 
j)riest,  and  changing  his  position  from  one  side  to  the 
other.' 

In  the  Friendly  Islands  the  water  snake  was  much 
respected.^ 

In  America  serpents  were  worshipped  by  the  Aztecs,® 
Peruvians,' Natchez,**  Caribs,^  Monitarris,'"  Mandans,"  &c. 

Alvarez,  during  his  attempt  to  reach  Peru  from  Paraguay, 


'  Astley,  Inc.  cit.  vol.  iii.  p.  50.  rioa,  p.  1G2.     Gama,  Doscripcion  Ilis- 

*  Ciisalis'  IJasutos,  p.  246,  Chap-  torioa  y  Cronolf)gica  de  las  Peclra.s  d(! 
man's  Travels,  vol.  i.  p.  19;').  Calla-  Mexico,  1832,  p.  39;  Bornal  Diaz,  p. 
way's  Ilcligious  System  of  the  Ama-  125. 

zuhi.  '  Miillor,    Ges.  d.   Amor.  Urroligi- 

*  Three  Visits   to  Madagascar,   p.  onon,  p.  36G. 
143.  «  Ibid.  p.  G2. 

*  Fiji  and  the  Fijians.vol.  ii.  p.  217.  "  I^'id-  p.  221. 

*  Mariner,  vol.  ii.  p.  106.  '"  KU'inm,  vol.  ii.  p.  162. 

®  Squior's  Sorpent  Symbol  in  Amc-  "  Ibid.  p.  163.                             • 


1 1' 


ml 


n  ! 


I! 


i:!! 


Mi 


ISO 


THE    WOR.SIIIP    OF   OTHER    ANIMALS. 


^  h 


iMiii.  }  ■'!! 


is  reported'  to  lu\vc  seen  the  *  temi)le  and  residence  of  a 
monstrous  serpent,  wliom  the  inhabitants  had  chosen  for 
their  divinity,  and  fed  with  human  flesh.  lie  was  as  thick 
as  an  ox,  and  seven-and-tw3nty  feet  long,  with  a  very 
large  head,  and  very  fierce  though  small  eyes.  His  jaws, 
when  extended,  displayed  two  ranks  of  crooked  fangs. 
The  whole  body,  except  the  tail  which  was  smooth,  was 
covered  with  round  scales  of  a  great  thickness.  The 
Spaniards,  though  they  could  not  be  persuaded  by  the 
Indians  that  this  monster  delivered  oracles,  were  exceed- 
ingly terrified  at  the  first  sight  of  him  ;  and  their  terror 
was  gi'eatly  increased,  when,  on  one  of  them  having  fired 
a  blunderbuss  at  him,  he  gave  a  roar  like  that  of  a  lion, 
and  with  a  stroke  of  his  tail  shook  the  whole  tower.' 

The  worship  of  serpents  being  so  widely  distributed, 
and  presenting  so  many  similar  features,  we  cannot  won- 
der that  it  has  been  regarded  as  something  special,  that 
attempts  have  been  made  to  trace  it  up  to  one  source,  and 
that  it  has  been  regarded  by  some  as  the  primitive  re- 
ligion of  man. 

I  will  now,  however,  proceed  to  mention  other  cases  of 
zoolatry. 

Animal  worship  was  very  prevalent  in  America.*  The 
Redskins  reverenced  the  bear,*  the  bison,  the  hare,'*  and 
the  wolf,'^  a.nd  some  siDCcies  of  birds.^  The  jaguar  was 
worshipped  in  some  parts  of  Brazil,  and  especially  in  La 
riata.'^  In  South  America  birds  and  jaguars  seem  to  have 
been  the  specially  sacred  animals.  The  owl  in  Mexico 
was  regarded  as  an  evil  spirit  ;^  in  South  America  eagles 


'  Charlevoix's  History  of  Paraguay, 
vol.  i.  p.  110. 
2  Miiller,  Am.  Urr.,  p.  60,  ct  scq. 
'  Ihid.  p.  61. 
*  Schoolcraft,  vol.  i.  p.  316. 


*  Miiller,  he.  cit.  p.  257. 
"  Miiller,  Am.  Urr., p.  134.  KUrara 
loc.  cit.  vol.  ii.  p.  164. 
'  Loc.  cit.  p.  256. 
"  Proscott,  vol.  i.  p.  48. 


AMERICA. 


181 


cc  of  a 
sen  for 
s  tUiek 
a  very 
is  jaws, 
,  fangs. 
)tli,  was 
.      The 
by  the 
exceed- 
r  terror 
[ng  fired 
r  a  lion, 

?r.' 

tributed, 
lot  won- 
;ial,  tliat 
irce,  and 
litive  re- 

eascs  of 

a.2  The 
lare,'*  and 
o-uar  was 
illy  in  La 
n  to  have 
n  Mexico 
ica  ea piles 


17. 

134.  KUinra 


ntid  goatsuckers  were  much  venerated.'  The  Abipoue.s* 
ihiuk  that  certain  Httlo  ducks  Svhieh  Hy  about  at  night, 
\itteriug  a  mournful  hiss,  arc  the  souls  of  the  departed.' 

In  Yucatan  it  was  customary  to  leave  an  infant  alone  in 
a  place  sprinkled  with  ashes.  Next  morning  the  ashes 
were  examiiied,  and  if  the  footprints  of  any  aninnils  were 
found  on  them,  that  animal  was  chosen  as  the  deity  of  the 
infant.* 

The  semi-civilised  races  of  Mexico''  and  Peru  were  more 
advanced  in  their  religious  conceptions.  In  the  latter  the 
sun  was  the  great  deity.*  Yet  in  Peni,'"'  even  at  the  time 
of  the  conquest,  many  species  of  animals  were  still  much 
reverenced,  including  the  fox,  dog,  llama,  condor,  eagle, 
and  puma,  besides  the  serj^ent.  Indeed,  every  s^^ecies 
of  animal  was  supposed  to  have  a  representative,  or  arche- 
type, in  heaven.^  In  Mexico  a  similar  feeling  prevailed, 
but  neither  here  nor  in  Peru  can  it  truly  be  said  that  ani- 
mals at  the  time  of  the  conquest  were  nationally  regarded 
as  actual  deities. 

The  Polynesians,,  also,  had  generally  advanced  beyond 
the  stage  of  Totemism.  The  heavenly  bodies  were  not 
worshiiDped,  and  when  animals  were  regarded  with  ven- 
eration, it  was  rather  as  representatives  of  the  deities, 
tha,n  with  idea  that  they  were  really  deities.  Still  the 
Tahitians  ^  had  a  superstitious  reverence  for  various  kinds 
of  fish  and  birds ;  such  as  the  heron,  kingfisher,  and 
woodpecker,  the  latter  apparently  because  they  frequented 
the  temples. 

The  Sandwich  Islanders^  seem  to  have  regarded  the  raven 


'  :\riUl<'r,  Amer.  Urr.,  p.  237. 

*  Loc.  cit.  vol.  ii.  p.  74. 

*  Be  Brasses,  Du  Culle  des  DIeux 
Fetiches,  p.  4G. 

*  MuUcr,  he.  cit.  p.  481, 

*  Prescott's  llistory  of  Peru,  p.  88. 


•  Mullor,  p.  366. 

'  Prescott's  History  of  Peru,  p.  87. 
^  Polynesian  Ileseurches,  vol.  ii.  p. 
202. 

•  Cook's   Third  Voyiige,  vol.   iii.  p. 
IGO. 


\  I 

,'1 


Mil! 


ii«i 

'i««; 


f  I 


\'  I 


$. 


'I 


I.  ;' 


^■1 


1 1  i 
I  1 


j  li 


iii 


U! 


1.S2 


PACIFIC    ISLANDS.      8UJKRIA. 


as  sjuTCil,  mid  the  New  Zcaliuidors,  aeooriliii;^'  to  Forstor, 
I'l'i^'urdtHl  a  specnos  of  trce-croopcr  as  tho  'bird  of  the 
divinity.''  The  Toii;,'a!is  considered  that  tlie  deitie.s  '  sonic- 
times  come  into  the  liviii;^  bodies  of  lizards,  porpoises,  and 
a  species  of  water  siiake  j  hence  these  animals  arc  much 
respected.'' 

The  Bishop  of  "Wellington  informs  ns  that  *  spiders  were 
special  objects  of  reverence  to  Maoris,  and  as  the  priests 
further  told  them  that  the  souls  of  the  faithful  went  to 
heaven  on  gossamer  threads,  they  were  very  careful  not  to 
break  any  si)iders'  webs,  or  gossamers.  Lizards  were 
also  supposed  to  be  chosen  by  the  Maori  gods  as  favourite 
abodes.'* 

In  the  Feojee^  Islaiids, besides  tho  serpent,*  certain  birds, 
fish  and  plants,  and  some  men,  are  sujiposed  to  have  deities 
closely  connected  with  or  residing  in  them.  At  Lakemba, 
Tui  Lakemba,  and  on  Vanua  Leva,  Ravuravu,  claim  the 
hawk  as  their  abode ;  Viavia,  and  other  gods  the  shark. 
One  is  supposed  to  inhabit  the  eel,  and  another  the  common 
fowl,  and  so  on,  until  nearly  every  animal  becomes  the 
shrine  of  some  deity.  He  who  worships  the  god  dwelling 
in  the  eel  must  never  eat  of  that  fish,  and  thus  of  the  rest ; 
so  that  some  are  Tabu  from  eating  human  flesh,  because 
the  shrine  of  their  god  is  a  man.' 

In  Siberia  Erman  mentions  that  *the  Polar  bear,  as 
the  strongest  of  God's  creatures,  and  that  which  seems  to 
come  nearest  to  the  human  being,  is  as  much  venerated 
by  the  Samoyedes,  as  his  black  congener  by  the  Ostyaks. 
They  even  swear  by  the  throat  of  this  strong  animal,  whom 
they  kill  and  eat ;  but  when  it  is  once  killed,  they  show 
their  respect  for  it  in  various  ways.'  * 

•  Voyage  round  tho  World,  vol.  i.         *  Williams'  Fiji   and  the   Fijians, 
p.  519.  vol.  i.  p.  219. 

'  Mariner,  loc.  cif.  vol.  ii.  p.  106.  *  Erman,  vol.  ii.  p.  55. 

•  Trans.  Ethn.  Soc.   1870,  p.  367. 


INDIA.      AFRICA.      MADAOARCAR. 


183 


Fijians, 


Each  iiibe  of  tlu;  Jakuls  Mooks  on  somo  j  articular 
creature  as  sacred,  c.j^.,  a  swan,  {^oo.s«»,  raven,  i^c,  and 
8uch  is  not  eaten  by  that  tribe,  thou<^h  the  others  may  eat 
if.''  The  sanio  feelini^  extends  even  to  phmts,  and  iii 
China,  when  the  sacred  apricot  tree  i«  broken  to  make  tho 
spirit  pen,  it  is  customary  to  write  an  apolojjy  on  the  bark.* 

The  Hindus,  says  Dubois,'  '  in  all  things  extravagant, 
pay  honour  and  worship,  less  or  more  solemn,  to  almost 
every  living  creature,  whether  quadruped,  bird,  or  reptile.' 
The  cow,  the  ape,  the  eagle  (known  as  garuda),  and  tho 
serpent,  receive  the  highest  honou/s ;  but  the  tiger,  ele- 
phant, horse,  stag,  sheep,  hog,  dog,  cat,  rat,  peacock,  cock, 
chameleon,  lizard,  tortoise,  fish,  and  even  insects,  have 
been  made  objects  of  worship. 

The  ox  is  held  especially  sacred  throughout  most  of 
India  and  Ceylon.  Among  the  Todas  *  the  *  buffaloes  and 
bell  are  fused  into  an  incomprehensible  mystic  whole,  or 
unity,  and  constitute  their  prime  object  of  adoration  and 
worship.'     .... 

*  Towards  evening  the  herd  is  driven  back  to  the  tuel, 
when  such  of  the  male  and  female  members  of  the  family 
as  are  present  assemble,  and  make  obeisance  to  the  ani- 
mals.* The  goose  is  worshipped  in  Ceylon,'  and  the 
alligator  in  the  Philippines. 

The  ancient  Egyptians  were  greatly  addicted  to  animal 
worship,  and  even  now  Sir  S.  Baker  states  that  on  tho 
White  Nile  the  natives  will  not  eat  the  ox.®  The  common 
fowl  also  is  connected  with  superstitious  ceremonies  among 
the  Obbo  and  other  Nile  tribes.' 

The  King  of  Ardra,  on  the  Guinea  Coast,  had  certain 


•  Strahlenberg,  p.  383. 

*  Tylor,  Eoy.  Inst.  Journ.,  vol.  v. 
p.  527. 

'  Loc.  cit.  p.  445. 

♦  Trans.  Ethn.  Soc.  N.S.  vol.  vii.  pp. 


250,  253.   See  also  Ethn.  Journ.  18G9, 
p.  97. 

*  Tennent's  Ceylon,  vol.  i.  p.  484. 

*  Albert  N'yanza,  vol.  i.  p.  69. 
^  Bilker,  loc.  a7.  vol.  i.  p.  327. 


m 


^  'l! 


iiii 


i    n 


,  Mi]  i«'  n:  ■  « 


:| 


IS  I. 


TIIR   CUSTOM   OP   ArOLOfJISINQ 


liliK'k  birds  for  his  ffticlics,'  luid  (ho  nc^nu'S  of  n<'iiiii  also 
rcvrrence  several  kinds  of  birds. 

The  nogroos  of  Guiiioa  regard'  'the  sword-fish  and  tiie 
bonito  as  deities,  and  such  is  their  veneration  for  them, 
ilnit  tliey  never  catch  either  sort  desijjnedly.  If  a  aword-lisli 
liii[>I)en  to  be  taken  by  chance,  they  will  not  eat  it,  till  tlie 
sword  bo  cut  off,  which,  when  dried,  they  re<;ard  as  a /<//«- 
so.'  They  also  regard  the  crocodile  as  a  deity.  On  the  (Juinea 
Coast,  says  Uosnian,  *  a  great  part  of  the  ncj^roes  believe 
that  man  was  made  by  Anansie,  that  is,  a  great  spider.'  ' 

In  Madagascar,  Ellis  *  tells  us  that  the  natives  regard 
crocodiles  '  as  possessed  of  supernatural  power,  invoke 
their  forbearance  with  prayers,  or  seek  protection  by 
charms,  rather  than  attack  them ;  even  the  shaking  of  a 
spear  over  the  waters  would  be  regarded  as  an  act  of 
sacrilegious  insult  to  the  sovereign  of  the  flood,  imperilling 
the  life  of  the  offender  the  next  time  ho  should  venture 
on  the  \  iter.' 

The  nations  of  Southern  Europe  had  for  the  most  part  ad- 
vanced beyond  animal  worship  even  in  the  earliest  histori- 
cal times.  The  extraordinary  sanctity  attributed,  in  the 
Tv\xdfth  Odyssey,  to  the  oxen  of  the  sun,  stands  almost 
alone  in  Greek  mythology,  and  is  regarded  by  Mr.  Glad- 
stone as  of  Phoenician  origin.  It  is  true  that  the  horse  is 
spoken  of  with  mysterious  respect,  and  that  deities  on 
several  occasions  assumed  the  form  of  birds  ;  but  this  does 
not  amount  to  actual  worship. 

The  deification  of  animals  explains  probably  the  curious 
fact  that  various  savage  races  habitually  apologise  to  the 
animals  which  they  kill  in  the  chase ;  thus,  the  Vogulitzi  ^ 

'  Astley's  Collection  of  Voyages,  vol.         *  Three  Visits   to  Madagascar,   p. 

iii.  pp.  72,  99.  297. 

"  Astloy,  vol.  ii.  p.  067.  _  »  .Strahlonbcrg's  Voyage  to  Siberia, 

'  Pinkerton,   loc.   cit.   vol.    xvi.    p.  p.  97. 
396. 


II  also 

i«l  the 
ilicin, 

;'(1-Ii.sll 

ill  the 
ifch'i*- 
Juiiiosi 
Ix'lk'vo 
ler.'  » 

invoke 

ioii   by 

i<jr  of  a 

act  of 


erilliii}^ 
venture 

►art  ad- 
listori- 
in  tlie 
almost 

'.  Glad- 
lorse  is 

Ities  on 
lis  does 


Icurioiis 

to  the 

'ulitzi  ^ 

^rvsciir,   p. 
Siberia, 


TO   ANlMAIiS    FOn    KILLING    THKM. 


185 


of  Siberia,  wlicii  they  Imve  killrd  a  ht'iir,  address  it 
formally,  ami  maiiituiii  *  that  the  hlame  is  to  bf  laid  (tii 
the  arrows  and  iron,  whieh  were  made  and  ior^'ed  by  the 
Russians.'  Pallas*  narrates  a  similar  aetion  on  the  part  of 
aiiOstyak.  Schooleratl*  mentions  a  case  of  an  Indian  on 
tlio  shores  of  Lake  Superior  beggin*^  pardon  of  a  bear 
■vvhieh  he  had  shot. 

llefore   engaj,nn<^    in    a    hnni    the    Chippcways   have  a 

*  medieino  '  dance  in  order  to  propitiate  the  spirits  of  the 
bears  or  other  game.'  So  also  in  IJritish  (\»Unnbia,'  when 
the  lishinf^  season  commences,  and  the  fish  be;^in  comiii;^' 
up  the  rivers,  the  Indians  used  to  meet  thorn,  and  *  speak 
to  them.  They  paid  court  to  them,  and  would  address 
them  thus:  "You  fish,  you  fish;  you  arc  all  chiefs,  you 
are  ;  you  are  all  chiefs."  ' 

The    Koussa    Kaffirs'^    had    a    very    shnilar    custom. 

*  Before  a  party  goes  out  hunting,  a  very  odd  ceremony 
or  sport  takes  place,  which  they  consider  as  absolutely 
necessary  to  ensure  success  to  the  undertaking.  One  of 
them  takes  a  handful  of  grass  into  his  mouth,  and  crawls 
about  upon  all-fours  to  represent  some  sort  of  game.  The 
rest  advance  as  if  they  would  run  him  through  with  their 
spears,  raising  the  huuting  cry,  till  at  length  he  falls  upon 
the  ground  as  if  dead.  If  this  man  afterwards  kills  a 
head  of  game,  he  hangs  a  claw  upon  his  arm  as  a  troi)liy, 
but  the  animal  must  be  shared  with  the  rest.'  Lichtenstein 
also  mentions  that  '  if  an  elephant  is  killed  after  a  very 
long  and  wearisome  chase,  as  is  commonly  the  case,  they 
seek  to  exculpate  themselves  towards  the  dead  animal, 
by  declaring  to  him  solemnly,  that  the  thing  happened 
entirely   by    accident,   not    by    design.'^     To   make  the 


•  Voyages,  vol.  iv.  p.  85. 
^  Schoolcraft's  Indian  Tribes,  vol. 
iii.  p.  229.  269. 

«  Catlin's  Amer.  Ind.  vol.  ii.  p.  24S.         *  Pkl  vol.  i.  p.  254 


*  :Motlalikallnli,  p.  Ofi. 

*  Lichtcnyteiii's  Travels,   vol.   i.    p 


rl'  ' 


( 


KM] 


h:l 


Ml 


..     I 


18G 


CAMBODIA.       SUMATRA.      SIBERIA. 


H 


apology  more  completely  tliey  cut  off  tlie  trunk  and  bury 
it  carefully  with  much  flattery. 

Speaking  of  a  Mandingo  who  had  killed  a  lion,  Gray 
says :  'As'  I  was  not  a  little  surjirised  at  seeing  the  man, 
whom  I  conceived  ought  to  be  rewarded  for  having  first 
so  disabled  the  animal  as  to  prevent  it  from  attacking  us, 
thus  treated,  I  requested  an  explanation ;  and  was  in- 
formed that  being  a  subject  only,  he  was  guilty  of  a  great 
crime  in  killing  or  shooting  a  sovereign,  and  must  suffer 
this  punishment  until  released  by  the  chiefs  of  the  villiige 
who,  knowing  the  deceased  to  have  been  their  enemy, 
would  not  only  do  so  immediately,  but  commend  the  man 
for  his  good  conduct.  I  endeavoured  to  no  purpose  to 
find  out  the  origin  of  this  extraordinary  mock  ceremony, 
but  could  only  gain  the  answer,  frequently  given  by  an 
African,  "  that  his  forefathers  had  always  done  so."  ' 

The  Stiens  of  Cambodia'  believe  that  *  animals  also 
have  souls  whicli  wander  about  after  their  death ;  thus, 
when  they  have  killed  one,  fearing  lest  its  soul  sliould 
come  and  torment  them,  they  ask  pardon  for  the  evil  they 
have  done  to  it,  and  offer  sacrifices  proportioned  to  the 
strength  and  size  of  the  animal.' 

The  Sumatrans  speak  of  tigers'  *  with  a  degree  of  awe, 
and  hesitate  to  call  them  by  their  common  name  (rimau 
or  machang),  terming  them  respectfully  satwa  (the  wild 
animals),  or  even  nenek  (ancestors) ;  as  really  believing 
them  such,  or  by  way  of  soothing  and  coaxing  them. 
When  an  European  procures  traps  to  be  set,  by  means 
of  persons  less  sujDerstitious,  the  inhabitants  of  the 
neighbourhood  have  been  known  to  go  at  night  to  the 
place,  and  practise  some  forms,  in  order  to  persuade  the 
animals  that  it  was  not  laid  by  them,  or  with  their  consent.' 

'  Gray's  Travels  in  "Western  Africa,     Tarts  of  Indo-Cliina,  vol.  i.  p.  2;")2. 
p.  143  .  '  Marsden's    Hist,  of  Sumatra,   p. 

2  Mouhot's  Travels   in  tlie  Central     292. 


m 


THE    WORSHIP   OF   INANIMATE   OBJECTS. 


1S7 


jury 

3tray 
man, 
first 
gus, 
s  in- 
rjreat 
suffer 
illage 
iicmy, 
3  man 
)se  to 
mony, 
by  an 

s  also 
thus, 
sliould 
il  they 
to  the 

if  awe, 
(rhnau 

[e  wild 
[ieving 

them. 

means 
(of  the 
Ito  the 
Ide  the 


Ins 


ent. 


2f)2. 
butra,   p. 


The  dciiication  of  inanimate  objects  is  perhaps  some- 
what more  difficult  to  understand  than  that  of  animals. 
The  names  of  individuals,  however,  would  be  tiiivcn  not 
only  from  animals,  but  also  from  inanimate  objects,  and 
would  thus,  as  suggested  at  p.  171,  lead  to  the  worship  of 
the  latter  as  well  as  of  the  former.  Some  of  them,  moreover, 
are  singularly  lifelike.  No  one,  I  think,  can  wonder  that 
rivers  should  have  been  regarded  as  alive.  The  constant 
movement,  the  rij)ples  and  eddies  on  their  surface,  the 
vibrations  of  the  reeds  and  other  water  plants  growing  in 
them,  the  murmuring  and  gurgling  sounds,  the  clearness 
and  transparency  of  the  water,  combine  to  produce  a 
singular  effect  on  the  mind  even  of  cWilised  man. 

The  savage  also  is  susceptible  to  such  influences,  and  is 
naturally  prone  to  personify  not  only  rivers  but  also  other 
inanimate  objects. 

Seneca  long  ago  observed,  that  '  if  you  walk  in  a  grove, 
thick  planted  with  ancient  trees  of  unusual  growth,  the 
interwoven  boughs  of  which  exclude  the  light  of  heaven  ; 
the  vast  height  of  the  wood,  the  retired  secrecy  of  the 
place,  the  deep  unbroken  gloom  of  shade,  impress  your 
mind  with  the  conviction  of  a  present  deity.' 

Again,  who  can  wonder  at  that  worship  of  the  sun, 
moon,  and  stars,  which  has  been  regarded  as  a  special 
form  of  religion,  and  is  known  as  Sabseism  ?  It  does  not 
however,  in  its  original  form,  essentially  differ  from 
mountain  or  river  worship.  To  us  with  our  knowledge 
of  the  sun,  it  seems  naturally  a  more  sublime  form 
of  religion,  but  we  must  remember  that  the  lower  races 
who  worship  the  heavenly  bodies  have  no  idea  of  their  dis- 
tance, nor  consequently  of  their  magnitude.  Hence  the 
curious  ideas  with  reference  to  eclipses  which  I  have 
already  mentioned  (p.  136).  Again,  the  New  Zealanders 
believed  that  Mawe,  their  ancestor,  caught  "the  sun  in  a 


■a 


-Il 


ii^ 


'  ';  ■! 


it 


i^l 


183 


SAVAGE    TENDENCY   TO    DEIFICATION. 


•  I  ■«»■■«!  I  '•'■■■  t   ft 


!>s  ■  '  .  I'' 


I 


I 


iiooso,  and  wounded  it  so  severely  tliat  its  movements 
have  been  slower,  and  the  days  ccnsequently  lonj^'cr,  ever 
since,* 

According  to  another  account,  Mnwc  M'ed  a  string  to 
the  sun  and  fastened  it  to  the  moon,  that  as  the  former 
went  down,  the  other,  being  pulled  after  it  !)y  the  superior 
X^ower  of  the  sun,  may  rise  and  give  light  during  his 
jibscnce.'^ 

We  must  always  bear  in  mind  that  the  savage  notion  of 
a  deity  is  essentially  different  from  that  entertained  by 
higher  races.  Instead  of  being  supernatural,  he  is  merely 
a  part  of  nature.  This  goes  far  to  explain  the  tendency 
to  deification  which  at  first  seems  so  strange. 

A  good  illustration,  and  one  which  sh(jws  how  easily 
deities  are  created  by  men  in  this  frame  of  mind,  is  men- 
tioned by  Lichtenstein.  The  king  of  the  Koussa  Kaffirs 
having  broken  off  a  piece  of  a  stranded  anchor,  died 
soon  afterwards,  upon  which  all  the  Kaffirs  looked  upon 
the  anchor  as  alive,  and  saluted  it  respectfully  whenever 
they  passed  near  it.^  Again,  the  natives  near  Sydney 
made  it  an  invariable  rule  never  to  whistle  when  ben^nth 
a  particular  cliff,  because  on  one  occasion  a  rock  fell  from 
it  and  crushed  some  natives  who  were  whistling  under- 
neatli  it."* 

A  very  interesting  case  is  recorded  by  Mr.  Fergusson.' 
*  The  following  instance  of  tree- worship,'  he  says,  *  which 
I  myself  witnessed,  is  amusing,  even  if  not  instruc- 
tive. While  residing  in  Tessore,  I  observed  at  one 
time  considerable  crowds  passing  near  the  factor^  I  then 
had  charge  of.  As  it  might  be  rrerely  an  ordinary  fair 
they  were  going  to  attend,  I  took  no  notice ;  but  as  the 


'  Polynesian  Mytliolopy,  p.  G.'jv 
2  Yixte,  he.  cif.  p.  143. 
•  Travels,  vol.  i.  p.  2.'il. 


*  Collins's  Englisli  Colony  in  N.S. 
Wales,  p.  382. 

*  Tree  and  Serpent  Woi-ship,  p.  74. 


1 


cinents 
er,  ever 

trill  g  to 
5  former 
superior 
dug  liis 

lotion  of 
lined  by 
s  merely 
tendency 

)w  easily 
,  is  men- 
a  Kaffirs 
lior,  died 

ed  upon 
svlienever 
r  Sydney 
L  ben-^ntli 

fell  from 
lo-  under- 

jriXusson.'* 
,  '  wliicli 
instruc- 
1  at  one 
1  y  I  then 
inary  fair 
ut  as  the 

ilony  in  N,S. 
orship,  p.  74. 


LIFE    ATTRIBUTED    TO    INANIMATE    ODJECTS. 


ISO 


crowd  grew  daily  larger,  and  assumed  a  more  religious 
character,  I  enquired,  and  was  told  that  a  god  hud  appeared 
in  a  tree  at  a  place  about  six  miles  off.  Next  morning  I 
rode  over,  and  found  a  largo  space  cleared  in  a  village  I 
knew  well,  in  the  centre  of  which  stood  an  old  decayed 
date  tree,  hung  with  garlands  and  offerings.  Around  it 
houses  were  erected  for  the  attendant  Brahmins,  and  a 
great  deal  of  business  was  going  on  in  offerings  and  Puja. 
On  my  enquiring  how  the  god  manifested  his  presence,  I 
was  informed  that  soon  after  the  sun  rose  in  the  morning 
the  tree  raised  its  head  to  welcome  him,  and  bowed  it  down 
again  when  he  departed.  As  this  was  a  miracle  easily 
tested,  I  returned  at  noon  and  found  it  was  so  !  After  ji 
little  study  and  investigation,  the  mystery  did  not  seem 
difficult  of  explanation.  The  tree  had  originally  grown 
across  the  princij)al  pathway  through  the  village,  but  at 
last  hung  so  low,  that  in  order  to  enable  people  to  pass 
under  it,  it  had  been  turned  aside  and  fastened  parallel  to 
the  road.  In  the  operati(  ai  the  bundle  of  fibres  which 
composed  the  root  had  become  twisted  like  the  strands  of 
a  rope.  When  the  morning  sun  struck  on  the  upper 
surface  of  these,  they  contracted  in  drying,  and  hence  a 
tendency  to  untwist,  which  raised  the  head  of  the  'ree. 
With  the  evening  dews  they  relaxed,  and  the  head  of  the 
tree  declined,  thus  proving  to  the  man  of  science  as  to  the 
credulous  Hindu,  that  it  was  due  to  the  direct  action  of 
the  Sun  God.' 

The  savage,  indeed,  accounts  for  all  movement  by  life. 
Hence  the  wind  is  a  living  being.  Nay,  even  motionless 
objects  are  regarded  in  a  particular  stage  of  mental  pro- 
gress as  possessing  spirits.  The  chief  of  Teah  could 
hardly  be  persuaded  but  that  Lander's  w^atch  was  alive  and 
had  the  power  of  moving.'  It  is  probably  for  this  reason 
that  in  most  languages  inanimate  objects  are  distinguished 

'  Niger  Expedition,  vkI.  ii,  p.  220, 


i:.1i' 


0^i 


IM 


ii' 


-^ ' 


V-i 


190 


SOULS    ATTRIBUTED   TO    INANIMATE    OBJECTS. 


by  genders,  being  at  first  regarded  as  either  male  or  female. 
Hence  also  the  practice  of  breaking  or  burning  the 
weapons,  &c.  buried  with  the  dead.  It  has  been  gener- 
ally supposed  that  this  was  merely  to  prevent  them  from 
being  a  temptation  to  robbers.  This  is  not  so,  how- 
ever; savages  do  not  invade  the  sanctity  of  the  tomb. 
Just,  however,  as  they  kill  a  man's  wives  and  slaves,  and 
favourite  horse,  that  they  may  accompany  him  to  the 
other  world,  so  do  they  '  kill '  the  weapons,  that  the  spirits 
of  the  bows,  &c.  may  also  go  with  their  master,  and  that  he 
may  enter  the  other  world  armed  and  provided  as  a  chief 
should  be.  Thus  the  Tahitians'  believed  *  that  not  only  all 
other  a.nimals,  but  trees,  fruit,  and  even  stones,  have  souls 
which  at  death,  or  upon  being  consumed,  or  broken,  ascend 
to  the  divinity,  with  whom  they  first  mix,  and  afterwards 
pass  into  the  mansion  allotted  to  each.' 

The  Feejeeans'*  considered  that '  if  an  animal  or  a  plant 
die,  its  soul  immediately  goes  to  Bolotoo ;  if  a  stone  or 
any  other  substance  is  broken,  immortality  is  equally  its 
vevvard;  nay,  artificial  bodies  have  equal  good  luck. with 
men  and  hogs,  and  yams.  If  an  axe  or  a  chisel  is  worn 
out  or  broken  up,  away  flies  its  soul  for  the  service  of  the 
gods.  If  a  house  is  taken  down,  or  ".  uy  way  destroyed,  its 
immortal  part  will  find  a  situation  on  the  plains  of  Bolotoo.' 

Sproat,^  speaking  of  N.  W.  America,  saj^,  that  '  when 
the  d^ad  are  buriedj  the  friends  often  burn  ])lankets  with 
them,  for  by  destroy]^- g  the  blankets  in  this  upper  world, 
they  send  them  also  with  the  departed  soul  to  the  world 
below.' 

In  China,^  *  if  the  dead  man  was  a  person  of  note,  l^lie 
Bonzes  make  great  processions;  the  mourners  following 
them  with  candles  and  perfumes  burning  in  their  hands. 


'  Cook's  Third  Voyage,  vol.  ii.  p. 
166. 
'  Mariner,  loc.  cif.  vol.  ii.  p.  137. 


'  Sproat's   Scenes    and    Studies   of 
SavMge  Life,  p.  213. 
•*  Astley,  vol.  iv.  p.  94. 


FIGURATIVE    LANGUAGE    OF   SAVAGES. 


101 


,  llie 


Tliey  offer  sacrifices  at  certain  distances,  anil  perform  tlio 
obsequies ;  in  wliicli  they  burn  statues  of  men,  women, 
liorses,  saddles,  and  other  things,  and  abundance  of  paper 
money :  all  which,  they  believe,  in  the  next  life,  are  con- 
verted into  real  ones,  for  the  use  of  the  party  deceased.' 

Thus  then  by  man  in  this  stage  of  progress  everything 
was  regarded  as  having  life,  and  being  more  or  less  a  Deity. 

In  India,  says  Dubois,*  *  a  woman  adores  the  basket 
which  serves  to  bring  or  to  hold  her  necessaries,  and  offers 
sacrifices  to  it ;  as  well  as  to  the  rice-mill,  and  other  im- 
plements that  assist  her  in  her  household  labours.  A 
carpenter  does  the  like  homage  to  his  hatchet,  his  adze, 
and  other  tools ;  and  likewise  offers  sacrifices  to  them.  A 
Brahman  does  so  to  the  style  with  which  he  is  going  '  > 
write ;  a  soldier  to  the  arms  he  is  to  use  in  the  field ;  a 
mason  to  his  trowel,  and  a  labourer  to  his  plough.' 

Sir  S.  Baker ^  says,  *  Should  the  present  history  of  t!ic 
country  be  written  by  an  Arab  scribe,  the  style  of  the  de- 
scription would  be  purely  that  of  the  Old  Testament,  and 
the  various  calamities  or  the  good  fortunes  that  have  in  the 
course  of  nature  befallen  both  the  tribes  and  the  individ- 
uals, would  be  recounted  either  as  special  visitations  oT 
Divine  wrath,  or  blessings  for  good  deeds  performed.  If 
in  a  dream  a  particular  course  of  action  is  suggested,  the 
Arab  believes  that  God  has  spoJcen  and  directed  him.  The 
Arab  scribe  or  historian  would  describe  the  event  as  the 
"  voice  of  the  Lord  "  (Kallam  el  Allah)  having  spoken  unto 
the  person  :  or,  that  God  appeared  to  him  in  a  dream  and 
"  said,  &c."  Thus,  much  allowance  would  be  necessary,  on 
the  part  of  a  European  reader,  for  the  figurative  ideas  and 
expressions  of  the  people.' 

Mr.  Fergusson,  indeed,  regards  tree-worship,  in  associa- 


^'■^ 


'^1        i 


'  People  of  India,  p.  373.     Sec  also         '  The  Nile  Trilmtaries  of  Abyssinia, 
pp.  383,  383.  by  Sir  S.  W.  Baker,  p.  130. 


!   i 


192 


TREE-WORSniP. 


I  1     i 


I  li 


i      ! 


h 


1       ! 


tion  with  scrpcnt-worsliip,  as  the  primitive  faith  of  man- 
kind. Mr.  Wake'  also  sajs,  *  How  are  we  to  acconnt  for  the 
Polynesians  also  affixing  a  sacred  character  to  a  species  of 
the  banyan,  called  by  them  the  ava  tree,  and  for  the  same 
phenomenon  being  found  among  the  African  tribes  on  the 
Zambesi  and  the  Shire,  among  the  negroes  of  Western 
equatorial  Africa,  and  even  in  Northern  Australia  ?  Such 
a  fact  as  this  cannot  bo  accounted  for  as  a  mere  coinci- 
dence.' 

Since,  however,  tree-worship  equally  prevails  in  America, 
we  cannot  regard  it  as  any  'evidence  of  the  common  origin 
of  the  various  races  which  practise '  it.  It  is,  however,  one 
among  many  illustrations  that  the  human  mind,  in  its  up- 
ward progress,  everywhere  passes  through  the  same  or  very 
similar  phases. 

Tree-worship  formerly  existed  in  Assyria,  Greece,^ 
Poland,  ^  France.  In  Persia  the  Homa  or  Soma  worship 
was  perhaps  a  case  in  point ;  Tacitus  *  mentions  the  sacred 
groves  of  Germany,  and  those  of  England  are  familiar  to 
everyone.  In  the  eighth  century,  St.  Boniface  found  it 
necessary  to  cut  down  a  sacred  oak,  and  even  recently  an 
oak  copse  at  Loch  Slant,  in  the  Isle  of  Skye,  was  held  so 
sacred  that  no  person  would  venture  to  cut  the  smallest 
branch  from  it.^ 

At  the  present  day  tree- worship  prevails  throughout 
Central  Africa,  south  of  Egypt  and  the  Sahara.  The 
Shangallas  in  Bruce's''  time  worshipped  *  trees,  serpents 
the  moon,  planets,  and  stars.' 

The    negroes    of   Guinea^    worshipped    three    deities. 


'  Chapters  on  Man,  p.  200. 
"^  Biuim   cultus   dcr  Ilellcncn,  Eot- 
ticher.  18.)6. 

'  Olaus  Magnus,  bk.  iii.  Ch.  I. 

*  Tacitup,  Germania,  ix. 

*  Early  Races   of  Scotland,  vol.   i. 
p.  171. 


^  Travels,  vol.  iv.  p.  35.  See  also 
vol.  vi,  p.  311. 

'  Voyage  to  Guinea,  p.  195.  Ens- 
man,  Pinkertou's  Voyages,  vol.  xvi. 
p.  49 1.  Merolla,  rinkerton's  Voyages^ 
vol.  xvi.  p.  236. 


ii   1 


of  man- 
it  for  the 
pecics  of 
tlie  samo 
'S  on  tlio 
Western 
L?  Such 
e  coinci- 

Amcrica, 
ion  origin 
(Tcver,  one 
in  its  np- 
tne  or  very 

Greece,'' 

la  worship 

the  sacred 

amiliar  to 

found  it 
jecently  an 
as  held  so 
smallest 

liroughout 
lara.  The 
?,  serpents 

^e    deities, 

ISo.     Si'C  also 

195.  r)OS- 
bes,  vol.  xvi. 
Iton's  Voyages, 


1 


Al'RICA.      INDIA.      CEYLON. 


ly.j 


— serpents,  trees,  and  the  sea.  Park'  observed  a  tree  on 
tlie  confines  of  Bondou,  hung  with  innumerable  offerings, 
principally  rags.  *  It  had,'  ho  says  *  a  very  singular 
appearance,  being  decorated  with  innumerable  rags  or 
strips  of  cloth,  which  persons  travelling  across  the  wilder- 
ness had  tied  to  the  branches.' 

Chapman  mentions  a  sacred  tree  among  the  Kuflirs, 
which  was  hung  with  numerous  offerings.' 

The  negroes   of  Congo'   adored   a   sacred   tree   called 

*  Mirrone.'  One  is  generally  planted  near  the  houses,  as 
if  it  were  the  tutular  god  of  the  dwelling,  the  Gentiles 
adoring  it  as  one  of  their  idols.  They  place  calabashes  of 
palm  wine  at  the  foot  of  these  trees,  in  case  they  should 
be  thirsty.  Bosman  also  states  that  along  the  Guinea 
coast  almost  every  village  has  its  sacred  grove*  At 
Addacoodah,  Oldfield"^  saw  a  '  gigantic  tree,  twelve  yards 
and  eight  inches  in  circumference.  I  soon  found  it  was 
considered  sacred,  and  had  several  arrows  stuck  in  it, 
from  which  were  sut  ^jended  fowls,  several  sorts  of  birds, 
and  many  other  things,  which  had  been  offered  by  the 
natives  to  it  as  a  deity.' 

The  Bo  tree  is  nmch  worshipped  in  India ^  and  Ceylon.^ 

*  The  planting  of  the  Eajayatana  tree  by  Buddha,'  says  Fer- 
gusson,  *  has  already  been  alluded  to,  but  the  history  of  the 
transference  of  a  branch  of  the  Bo  tree  from  the  Buddh-gya 
to  Anuradhapura,  is  as  authentic  and  as  important  as  any 
event  recorded  in  the  Ceylonese  annals.  Sent  by  Asoka 
(250  B.C.),  it  was  received  with  the  utmost  reverence  by 

•  Travels,  1817,  vol.  i.  pp.  61,  106.     97. 

See  also  Caillii',  vol.  i.  p.  156.  *  Loc.  cit.  p.  399,     See  also  Astlcy's 

*  Travels,  vol.    ii.   p.  60.     Klomm  Collection  of  Voyages,  vol.  ii.  p.  20. 
quotes  also  Villault,  Rel.  des   Costes  *  Expedition,  vol.  ii.  p.  117. 
d'Afriquo  S.,  pp.  263,  267.  *  Tree  and  Serpent  Worship,  p.  66, 

■  Merolla's  Voyage  to  Congo.     Pin-     ei  scq. 
kerton,    vol.    xvi.    p.    236.      Astloy's         '  I'nd.  p.  56. 
Collection  of  Voyages,  vol.  ii.  pp.  9.5, 


iSl 


I* 


il 


i  r^ 


!     ' 


1  . 


iiiil    I 


194 


SIBERIA. 


Doviinampijatisso,  and  plantotl  in  the  most  conspicnon? 
spot  in  the  centre  of  his  capital.  There  it  has  been 
reverenced  as  the  chief  and  most  important  "  numon  " 
of  Ceylon  for  more  than  2,000  years,  and  it,  or  its  lineal 
descendant  sprung  at  least  from  the  old  root,  is  there 
worshipped  at  this  hour.  The  city  is  in  ruins ;  its  great 
dagobas  have  fallen  to  decay ;  its  monasteries  have  disap- 
peared ;  but  the  great  Bo  tree  still  flourishes  according  to 
the  legend, — Ever  green,  never  growing  or  decreasing,  but 
living  on  for  ever  for  the  delight  and  worship  of  mankind. 
Annually  thousands  repair  to  the  sacred  precincts  within 
which  it  stands,  to  do  it  honour,  and  to  offer  up  those 
prayers  for  health  and  prosperity  which  are  more  likely  to 
be  answered  if  uttered  in  its  presence.  There  is  probably 
no  older  idol  in  the  world,  certainly  none  more  venerated.' 

Some  of  the  Chittagong  Hill  Tribes  worship  the  bamboo.* 
In  Siberia  the  Jakuts  have  sacred  trees  on  which  they 
*  hang  all  manner  of  nicknacks,  as  iron,  brass,  copper, 
&c.'"  The  Ostyaks  also,  as  Pallas  informs  us,  used  to 
worship  trees.' 

*  There  was  pointed  out  to  us,'  says  Erman,''  *  as  an 
important  monument  of  an  early  epoch  in  the  history  of 
Beresov,  a  larch  about  fifty  feet  high,  and  now,  through 
age,  flourishing  only  at  the  top,  which  has  been  preserved 
in  the  churchyard.  In  former  times,  when  the  Ostyak 
rulers  dwelt  in  Beresov,  this  tree  was  the  particular  object 
of  their  adoration.  In  this,  as  in  many  other  instances, 
observed  by  the  Russians,  the  peculiar  sacredness  of  the 
tree  was  due  to  the  singularity  of  its  form  and  growth,  for 
about  six  feet  from  the  ground,  the  trunk  separated  into 
two  equal  parts ;  and  again  united.     It  was  the  custom  of 

'  Lewin's  Ilill  Tracts  of  Chittagong,         ^  Lnc.  cit.  vol.  iv.  p.  79. 
p.  10.  ■*  Erman's  Travels  in  Siberia,  vol.  i. 

*  Strahlenberg,  Travels  in  Siberia,  p.  464. 
p.  381. 


SUMATRA.      PIIILirriNES. 


lorj 


3\10U9 

bcon 
[Tien  " 
lineal 

tliere 

great 
disap- 
ing  to 
ig,  bnt 
mkind. 

witliin 
)  tliose 
ikely  to 
robably 
,erate«l.' 
aniboo.* 
eh  tliey 

copper, 
used  to 

'  « as  an 
Lstory  of 
throngb 
[reserved 
Ostyak 
ir  object 
istances, 
3S  of  the 
)wtli,  for 
ited  into 
Instom  of 

jeria,  vol.  i. 


tlio  superstitious  natives  to  place  costly  offerings  of  every 
kind  in  the  opening  of  the  trunk  ;  nor  have  they  yet  aban- 
doned the  usage ;  a  fact  well  known  to  the  enlightened 
Kosaks,  who  enrich  themselves  by  carrj'ing  off  secretly 
the  sacrificial  gifts.'  *  Hanway,'  in  his  Travels  in  Persia, 
mentions  a  tree  to  which  wore  affixed  a  number  of  rags 
left  there  as  health-offerings  by  j^ersons  afllicted  willi 
ague.  This  was  beside  a  desolate  caravanserai  where  the 
traveller  found  nothing  but  water.' 

In  some  parts'*  of  Sumatra  *  likewise  they  superstitiously 
believe  that  certain  trees,  particularly  those  of  venerable 
appearance  (as  an  old  jawi-jawi  or  banian  tree),  are  the 
residence,  or  rather  the  material  frame  of  spirits  of  the 
■woods ;  an  opinion  which  exactly  answers  to  the  idea 
entertained  by  the  ancients  of  the  dryades  and  hama- 
dryades.  At  Benkunat,  in  the  Lampong  country,  there  is 
a  long  stone,  standing  on  a  flat  one,  supposed  by  iha 
people  to  possess  extraordinary  power  of  virtue.  It  is 
reported  to  have  been  once  thrown  down  into  the  water, 
and  to  have  raised  itself  again  into  its  original  position ; 
agitating  the  elements  at  the  same  time  with  a  prodigious 
storm.  To  approach  it  without  respect,  they  believe  to  be 
the  source  of  misfortune  to  the  offender.' 

Among  the  natives  of  the  Philippines  we  also  find  the 
worship  of  trees.'  They  also  '  believed  that  the  world 
at  first  consisted  onlj'^  of  sky  and  water,  and  between  these 
two  a  glede ;  which,  weary  with  flying  about,  and  finding 
no  place  to  rest,  set  the  water  at  variance  with  the  sky, 
which,  in  order  to  keep  it  in  bounds,  and  that  it  should 
not  get  uppermost,  loaded  the  water  with  a  number  of 
islands,  ih  which  the  glede  might  settle  and  leave  them 
at  i)eace.     Mankind,  they  said,  sprang  out  of  a  large  cane 


'  Quoted  in  tho  Early  Races  of  Scot- 
land, vol.  i.  p.  163.  See  also  Do 
Ei^osses,  loc.  cit.  pp.  144,  Mo. 


^  Marsdon's   History   of    Sumatra, 
p.  301. 

»  Ibid.  p.  303. 


*f  i 


'i\ 


f  i 


^'  .  iH 


190 


PAriFIC   ISLANDS.      MEXICO. 


witli  two  joints',  that,  flouting  about  in  tlio  wator,  was  at 
length  thrown  by  the  waves  against  the  feet  of  the  gUMh*, 
as  it  stood  on  shore,  which  opened  it  with  its  bill,  the  man 
came  out  of  one  joint,  the  woman  out  of  the  other.  Theso 
were  soon  after  married  by  consent  of  their  god,  Bathala 
Meycapal,  which  caused  the  first  trembling  of  the  earth  ; 
and  from  thence  are  descended  the  different  nations  of  tho 
world.' 

The  Fijians  also  worshipped  certain  plants.'  Tree- 
worship  was  less  prevalent  in  America.  Trees  and  plants 
were  worshipped  by  the  Mandans  and  Monitarees.''  A 
large  ash  was  venerated  by  the  Indians  of  Lake  Superior.'' 

In  North  America,  Franklin'*  describes  a  sacred  tree  on 
which  the  Crees  *had  hurg  strips  of  buffalo  flesh,  and 
pieces  of  cloth.'  They  complained  to  him  of  some  *  Stone 
Indians,  who,  two  nights  before,  had  stripped  their  revered 
tree  of  many  of  its  offerings.' 

In  Mexico  Mr.  Tylor'  observed  an  ancient  Cyprus  of 
remarkable  size :  *  all  over  its  branches  were  fastened 
votive  offerings  of  the  Indians,  hundreds  of  locks  of  coarse 
black  hair,  teeth,  bits  of  coloured  cloth,  rags  and  morsels 
of  ribbon.  The  tree  was  many  centuries  old,  and  had 
probably  had  some  mysterious  influence  ascribed  to  it, 
and  been  decorated  with  such  simple  offerings  long  before 
the  discovery  of  America.'  In  Nicaragua  not  only  large 
trees,  but  even  maize  and  beans,  were  worshipped.'*  Maize 
was  also  worshipped  in  the  Peinivian  province  of  Huanca.^ 

In    Patajronia    Mr.    Darwin®   mentions   a   sacred   tree 


*  Fiji  and  tho  Fijians, vol.  i.  p.  219. 

2  Miiller,  Amer,  Un-el.  p,  59. 

3  Miiller,  loc.  cit.  p.  1 2.5. 

*  Journoys  to  the  Polar  Sea,  vol,  i. 
p.  221. 

*  Anahuae,  p.  215.      He  mentions     ral  Ilistory,  p.  79. 
a  second  case  of  the   same  sort* on 


p.  205. 

*  Miillor,  loc,  cit.  p.  491.     See  also 
p.  491. 

''  Martins,  loc.  cit.  p.  80. 

'  Researches  in  Geology  and  Natu- 


was  at 

the  man 
These 
Bathalii 
e  earth  ; 
IS  of  the 

»  Tree- 
d  plants 
•ces.'*  A 
Superior.'' 
cl  tree  on 
esh,  and 
le  '  Stone 
.r  revered 

Cyprus  of 
fastened 
of  coarse 
d  morsels 
and  had 
)ed  to  it, 
»ng  before 
mly  large 
Maize 
Iluanca.'^ 
,cred  tree 


)1.     See  also 


0. 

jy  and  Niitu- 


PATAGONIA.      NORTn    AMERICA. 


107 


*  which  the  Indians  reverence  iis  the  altar  of  Walioochu. 
It  is  situated  on  a  high  part  of  the  plain,  and  hence  is  a 
landmark  visible  at  a  great  distance.  As  soon  as  a  tribe 
of  Indians  come  in  sight  of  it,  they  offer  their  adorations 
by  loud  shorts.  ...  It  stands  by  itself  without  any 
neighbour,  and  was  indeed  the  first  tree  wc  sjiw ;  after- 
wards we  met  with  a  few  others  of  the  same  kind,  but 
they  were  far  from  common.  Being  winter  the  tree  had 
no  leaves,  but  in  their  place  numberless  threads,  by  which 
the  various  offerings,  such  as  cigars,  bread,  meat,  pieces 
of  cloth,  &c.,  had  been  suspended.  Poor  people  not 
having  anything  better,  only  pulled  a  thread  out  of  their 
ponchoo,  and  fastened  it  to  the  tree.  The  Indians,  more- 
over, were  accustomed  to  pour  spirits  and  mate  into  a 
certain  hole,  and  likewise  to  smoke  upwards,  thinking 
thus  to  afford  all  possible  gratification  to  Walleechu.  To 
complete  the  scene,  the  tree  was  surrounded  by  the 
bleached  bones  of  the  horses  which  had  been  slaughtered 
as  sacrifices.  All  Indians,  of  every  age  and  sex,  made  their 
off'erings ;  they  then  thought  that  their  horses  would  not 
tire,  and  that  they  themselves  should  be  prosperous. 

*  The  Gauclio  who  told  me  this,  said  that  in  the  time  of 
peace  he  had  witnessed  this  scene,  and  that  he  and  others 
used  to  wait  till  the  Indians  had  passed  by,  for  the  sake 
of  stealing  their  off'erings  from  Walleeclm.  The  Gauchos 
think  that  the  Indians  consider  the  tree  as  the  god  itself; 
but  it  seems  far  more  probable  that  they  regard  it  as  the 
altar,' — a  distinction,  however,  which  a  Patagonian  Indian 
would  hardly  perceive. 

The  Abenaquis  also  had  a  sacred  tree  ' 

Trees  were  worshipped  by  the  ancient  Celts,  and 
De  Brosses'  even  derives  the  word  kirk,  now  softened  into 


'  De  Brosses,  Du  Culto  des  Diciix 
Fetiches,  p.  51.  Lalitiiu,  vol.  i.  p.  146. 


Loc.  cil.  p.  175. 


i 


<||i 

..m!) 


)  :' 


il 


i    I  t 
It 


198 


EFROPE. 


I       I 


,    ! 


cliurcli,  from  quLM't'iis  an  oak,  that  s[it'cic's  bcin^'  pociillarly 
sacred. 

The  Lapps  also  used  to  worshiji  trees.' 

Thus,  then,  this  form  of  religion  can  bo  shown  to  bo 
general  to  most  of  the  <,nvat  races  of  men  at  a  certain 
sta^c  of  mental  development. 

We  will  now  pass  to  the  worship  of  lakes,  rivers,  and 
sprinjjs,  which  we  shall  find  to  have  been  not  less  widely 
distributed.  It  was  at  one  time  very  prevalent  in  Western 
Europe.  Accordinjjf  to  Cicero,  Justin,  and  Strabo,  there 
was  a  lake  near  Toulouse  in  -vvhieh  the  neiffhbourinf; 
tribes  used  to  deposit  offerings  of  gold  and  silver.  Tacitus, 
Pliny,  and  Virgil  also  allude  to  sacred  lakes.  In  the 
sixth  century,  Gregory  of  Tours  mentions  a  sacied  lake 
on  mount  llelanus. 

In  Brittany  there  is  the  celebrated  well  of  St.  Anno  of 
Auray,  and  the  sacred  fountain  at  Lanmeur  in  the  crypt 
of  the  church  of  St.  Molars  to  which  crowds  of  2>ilgi'ims 
still  resort.' 

In  our  own  country  traces  of  water-worship  are  also 
abundant.  It  is  expressl.-  mentioned  by  Gildas,'  and  is 
said  to  be  denounced  iu  a  Saxon  homily  preserved  in 
Cambridge.'*  *  At  St.  Fillans'"'  well  at  Comrie,  in  Perth- 
shire, numbers  of  persons  in  search  of  health,  so  late  as 
1791,  came  or  were  brought  to  drink  of  the  waters  and 
bathe  in  it.  All  these  walked  or  were  carried  three 
times  deasil  (sunwise)  round  the  well.  They  also  threw 
each  a  white  stone  on  an  adjacent  cairn,  and  left  behind  a 
scrap  of  their  clothing  as  an  offering  to  the  genius  of  the 
place,'  In  the  Scotch  islands  also  are  many  sacred  wells, 
and  I  have  myself  seen  the  sacred  well  in  one  of  the 


'  Do  Bropsps,  loc.  cif.  p.  1 G9. 
2  Early  liaces  of  Scotluud,  vol.   i, 
p.  :.')8. 

s  Men.  Hist.  Brit.  vii. 


*  AVripht's  Snporsfitions  of  Eiifrliuid. 
'  Ivirly  Itac'i'S  of  Scotland,   vol.    i. 
p.  1<5G. 


!Ki 


llurly 


to  bo 
n'tain 

^,  aiut 

vicU'ly 

L'sti'vn 

tliero 

icitus, 
ji  the 
d  lakcj 

.line  of 
crypt 
.l<jriins 

•e  also 
and  is 
Ived  ill 
Pertli- 
llate  as 
TS  and 
three 
threw 
ihiiid  a 
of  the 
wells, 
of  the 

Ll,  vol.   i. 


WATEU-woRsuip.    kuuoim:. 


UK) 


isliuuls  of  Loch  Marec,  surr«»nud«'d  l>y  (he  llttlo  ofl't  riiiy;rt 
of  the  peasantry,  consistiii^  principally  of  ra^s  and  half- 
pence. 

Colonel  Forbes  Leslie  even  says  that  in  Scotland  '  there 
are  few  parishes  without  a  holy  well;'  nor  was  it  much 
less  j^eneral  in  Ireland.  The  kelpie,  or  spirit  of  the 
waters,  assumed  various  forms,  those  of  a  man,  woman, 
horse,  or  bull  bein<^  the  most  common.  Scotland  and 
Ireland  are  full  of  le^'ends  about  this  spirit,  a  firin  belief 
in  the  existence  of  which  was  {,'eneral  in  the  last  century, 
and  is  even  now  far  from  abandoned.' 

Of  river- worship  we  have  many  cases  recorded  in  Greek 
history.'  Peleus  dedicated  a  lock  of  Achilles'  hair  to  the 
river  Spercheios.  The  Pulians  sacrificed  a  bull  to  Alpheios  ; 
Themis  summoned  the  rivers  to  the  great  Olympian 
assembly.  Okeanos  the  Ocean,  and  various  fountains, 
were  regarded  as  divinities.  Water- worship  in  the  time  of 
Homer  was  however  gradually  fading  away;  and  belonged 
rather  I  think  to  an  earlier  stage  in  development,  than  to 
a  different  race  as  supposed  by  Mr.  Gladstone.' 

Ill  Northern  Asia  the  Tunguses  worshii)  various  sjirings.'* 
De  Brosses  mentions  that  the  river  Sogd  was  worship  -m  d 
at  Samarcand.^  Whipple*^  states  that  '  in  the  tenth  century 
a  schism  took  place  in  Persia  among  the  Armenians ;  one 
party  being  accused  of  desjnsing  the  holy  well  of  Vagars- 
chiebat.' 

The  Bouriats  also,  though  Buddhists,  have  sacred  lakes. 
Atkinson  thus  describes  one.  In  an  after-dinner  ramble, 
he  says,^  *  I  came  upon  the  small  and  picturesque  lake  of 
Ikeougoun,  which  lies  in  the  mountains  to  the  north  of 


'  Soe  Forbes  Leslie's  Early  Traces 
of  Scotland,  vol.  i.  p.  14o.  CampbeU's 
Tales  of  tho  West  Ilighlaiuls. 

^  Juventus  Mundi,  p.  190. 

»  Loc.  ci7.  pp.  177,  187. 


41. 


*  Pallas,  vol.  iv.  p.  Gil. 

*  Loc.  cit,  p.  1 16. 

^  lieport  on  the  Indian  Tribes,  p. 


1 1- 


1    <1 


'  Siberia,  p.  445. 


200 


ASIA. 


I 


\ ' 


ii1 


San-gliin-ilalai,  and  is  hold  in  veneration.  Tliey  have 
erected  a  small  wooden  temple  on  tlie  shore,  and  here 
they  come  to  sacrifice,  offering  up  milk,  butter,  and 
the  fu.t  of  the  animals,  which  they  burn  on  the  little 
altars.  The  large  rock  in  the  lake  is  with  them  a  sacred 
stone,  on  which  some  rude  figures  are  traced ;  and  on  the 
bank  oj)posite  they  place  rods  with  small  silk  flags,  having 
inscriptions  printed  on  them.*  Lake  Ahocsh  also  is 
accounted  sacred  among  the  Bashkirs.' 

The  divinity  of  water,  says  Dubois, '  \.i  recognised  by  all 
the  people  of  India.'  Besides  the  well-known  worship  of 
the  holy  Ganges,  the  tribes  of  the  Neilgherry  Hills'^ 
worship  rivers  under  the  name  of  Gangamma,  and  in 
crossing  them  it  was  usual  to  drop  a  coin  into  the  water 
as  an  offering,  and  the  price  of  a  safe  passage.  In  the 
Deccan  and  in  Ceylon,  trees  and  bushes  near  springs  may 
often  be  seen  covered  with  votive  offerings.'  The  Khonds 
also  worship  rivers  and  fountains.''  The  people  of  Sumatra 
'  are  said  to  pay  a  kind  of  adoration  to  the  sea,  and  to 
make  it  an  offering  of  cakes  and  sweetmeats  on  their  be- 
holding it  for  the  first  time,  deprecating  its  power  of  doing 
them  harm.''^ 

The  negroes  on  the  Guinea  Coast  worshipped  the  sea.*^ 
Herodotus  mentions  the  existence  of  sacred  fountains 
among  the  Libyans.^  In  the  Ashantee  country,  Bosman 
mentions  '  the  Chamascian  river,  or  Rio  de  San  Juan, 
called  by  the  Negroes  Bossum  Pra,  which  they  adore  as  a 
god,  as  the  word  Bossum  signifies.'^  The  Eufrates,  the 
principal  river  of  Whydah,  is  also  locked  on  as  sacred, 

'  Atkinson's  Oriental  and  "Western         "'  Marsden,  loc.  cit.  p.  301. 
Siberia,  p.  141.  '  BosTniin,  Pinkcrtou's  Voyages,  vol. 

'^  Tlie  Tribes  of  the  NuilghcrrA  Ilills,  xvi.  j,.494.  Smith's  Voyage  to  Guinea, 

p.  68.  p.  197.  A  St  ley's  Collection  of  Voyages, 

*  Early  Riiccs  of  Scotland,    vol.  i,  vol.  ii.  p.  26. 

p.  1C3.  ''  Melpomene,  clviii.,  clxx3.i. 

*  Ibkl  vol.  ii.  p.  407.  *  Loc.  cit.  p.  348. 


y    liaVG 

id  hero 
ir,  and 
LG  little 
1,  sacred 
[  on  the 
,  having 
also   is 

Dd  by  all 
n'sliip  ot' 
y   Hills  2 
,  and  in 
:he  water 
In  the 
■ings  may 
e  Khonds 
'  Sumatra 
and  to 
their  be- 
of  doing 


bhe  sea.'' 

Ifomitains 

Bosman 

Jan  Juan, 

idore  as  a 

•ates,  tlie 

IS  sacred, 

ioi. 

(Voyapos,  vol. 
re  to  (juiiii'ii, 
|i  of  Voyages, 

IxxJ.i. 


AFRICA. 


201 


and  a  yearly  procession  is  made  to  it.'  rhillips^  men- 
tions, that  on  one  occasion  in  lGt)3,  when  the  sea  was 
unusually  rough,  the  Kabosheers  complained  to  the  king, 
who  *  desired  them  to  be  easy,  and  he  would  make  th(3  S(\i 
quiet  next  day.  Accordingly  he  sent  his  fetlshmnn  with  a 
jar  of  palm  oil,  a  bag  of  rice  and  corn,  a  jar  of  pitto,  a 
bottle  of  brandy,  a  piece  of  painted  calico,  and  several 
other  things  to  j^resent  to  the  sea.  Being  come  to  the  sea- 
side (as  the  author  was  informed  by  his  men,  who  saw  the 
ceremony),  he  made  a  speech  to  it,  assuring  it  that  his 
king  was  its  friend,  and  loved  the  white  men  ;  that  they 
were  honest  fellows,  and  came  to  trade  with  him  for  what 
he  wanted ;  and  that  he  requested  the  sea  not  to  be  angry, 
nor  hinder  them  to  land  their  goods  ;  he  told  it,  that  if  it 
wanted  palm  oil,  his  king  had  sent  it  some ;  and  so 
threw  the  jar  with  the  oil  into  the  sea,  as  he  did,  with  the 
same  compliment,  the  rice,  corn,  pittOj  brandy,  calico,  &e.' 
Again,  Villault'  mentions  that  Makes,  rivers,  and  ponds 
come  in  also  for  their  share  of  worship.  The  author  was 
present  at  a  singular  ceremony  paid  to  a  pond  not  far  from 
the  Danish  fort,  near  Akkra,  to  entreat  rain  of  it,  the  season 
having  been  very  dry.  A  great  number  of  blacks  assembled 
about  the  pond,  bringing  with  them  a  sheep,  whose  tliroat 
the  priests  cnt  in  the  banks  of  the  salt  pond,  so  that  the 
blood  ran  into  it,  and  mingled  with  the  water.  Then 
they  made  a  fire,  while  others  cut  the  beast  in  pieces 
which  they  broiled  on  the  coals,  and  eat  as  fast  as  it  was 
ready.  This  being  over,  some  of  them  threw  a  gallipot 
into  the  pond,  muttering  some  words.  A  Dane  who  wjis 
present,  and  spoke  their  language  fluently,  informed  the 
author,  in  the  name  of  the  blacks,  that  this  lake,  or  pond, 
being  one  of  their  deities,  and  the  common  messenger  of 


«1^  '  ' 


H 


:!  i 


'  AsHoy,  Inc.  clt.  p.  2G, 

'  Afc;tlfy's  Collection  of  Voyjigos,  vol. 


ii.  p.  411. 

»  Had.  p.  G68. 


10 


202 


NORTH    AMERICA, 


i#i'  - 


£!  ' 


all  the  rivers  of  tlieir  country,  tlioy  tlirew  in  the  gallipots 
•with  these  ceremonies  to  implore  his  assistance ;  and  to  beg" 
him  to  carry  immediately  that  pot  in  their  name,  to  the 
other  rivers  and  lakes  to  buy  w^ater  for  them,  and  hoped, 
at  his  return,  he  would  j)Our  the  pot-full  on  their  corn, 
that  they  might  have  a  good  crop.' 

Some  of  the  Negroes  on  the  Guinea  Coast'  *  looked  on 
the  Whites  as  the  gods  of  the  sea ;  that  the  mast  was  a 
divinity  that  made  the  ship  walk,  and  the  pump  was 
a  miracle,  since  it  could  make  Avater  rise  up,  whose  natural 
property  is  to  descend.' 

In  North  America  the  Dacotahs*  worship  a  god  of  the 
waters,  under  the  name  of  Unktahe.  They  say  that  *this 
god  and  its  associates  are  seen  in  their  dreams.  It  is  the 
master-spirit  of  all  their  juggling  ancl  superstitious  belief. 
From  it  the  medicine-men  obtain  their  suj^ernatural 
powers,  and  a  great  part  of  their  ■religion  springs  from 
this  god.'  Franklin^  mentions  that  the  wife  of  one  of  his 
Indian  guides  being  ill,  her  husband  *  made  an  offering  to 
the  water- spirits,  whose  wrath  he  apprehended  to  be  the 
cause  of  her  malady.  It  consisted  of  a  knife,  a  piece  of 
tobacco,  and  some  other  trifling  articles,  which  were  tied 
up  in  a  small  bundle,  and  committed  to  the  rapid.' 
Carver^  observes  that  when  the  Eedskins  *  arrive  on  the 
borders  of  Lake  Superior,  on  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi, 
or  any  other  great  body  of  water,  they  iDresent  to  the 
spirit  who  resides  there  some  kind  of  offering,  as  the 
prince  of  the  Winnebagoes  did  when  he  attended  me  to 
the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony.'  Tanner  also  gives  instances  of 
this  custom.^      On   one  occasion  a   Redskin,  addressing 


'  Astloy,  Tol.  ii.  p.  105.  Sea,  1819-22,  vol.  ii,p.  24'). 

^  Schoolcral't's  Iiidiau  Tribes,  pt.  iii.  ■•  Carver's  Travels,  p.  ;583. 

p.  48a.  *  Niirrutive  of  tlio  Captivity  of  Jolm 

^  Joiirnoy  to  the  Shores  of  the  PoLr  Taiiiur,  p.  46. 


'  '  .u 


CENTEAL   AMERICA. 


203 


I 


illpota 
to  beg 

to  tllG 
hoped, 
:  corn, 

•Iced  on 
;  ^vas  a 
lip  was 
natural 

d  of  the 
Liat'tliis 
It  is  tlie 
us  belief, 
ernatnral 
ngs  from 
>ne  of  bis 
ffering  to 
to  be  tbe 
b  piece  of 
were  tied 
le   rapid.' 
ve  on  tbe 
;ississippij 
nt  to  tbe 
cr,  as  tbe 
led  me  to 
[stances  of 
Lddressing 


l245. 
Itivity  of  JoliB 


the  spirit  of  the  waters  '  told  him  that  ho  had  come  a  long 
way  to  pay  his  adorations  to  him,  and  now  would  niaho 
him  the  best  offerings  in  his  power.  He  acconlingly  first 
threw  his  pipe  into  the  stream ;  then  the  roll  that  con- 
tained his  tobacco;  after  these,  the  bracelets  he  wore  on 
his  arms  and  wrists  ;  next  an  ornament  that  encircled  his 
neck,  composed  of  beads  and  wires ;  and  at  last  the  carings 
from  his  ears ;  in  short,  he  presented  to  his  god  every  part 
of  his  dress  that  was  valuable.'^ 

The  Mandans  also  were  in  the  liabit  of  sacrificing  to  the 
sj)irit  of  the  waters.' 

In  North  Mexico,  near  the  35  th  Parallel,  Lieutenant 
Whipple  found  a  sacred  spring  which  from  time  immemo- 
rial *  had  been  held  sacred  to  the  rain-god.  No  animal 
may  drink  of  its  waters.  It  must  be  annually  cleansed 
with  ancient  vases,  which,  having  been  transmitted  from 
generation  to  generation  by  the  caciques,  are  then  placed 
upon  the  walls,  never  to  be  removed.  The  frog,  the 
tortoise,  and  the  rattlesnake,  represented  upon  them,  are 
sacred  to  Montezuma,  the  patron  of  the  place,  who  would 
consume  by  lightning  any  sacrilegious  hand  that  should 
dare  to  take  the  relics  away.  In  Nicaragua  rain  was 
worshipped  under  the  name  of  Quiateot.  The  principal 
water-god  of  Mexico,  however,  was  Tlaloc,  who  was  wor- 
shipped by  the  Toltecs,  Chichimecs,  and  Aztecs.'*  In  New 
Mexico,  not  far  from  Zuni,  Dr.  BelP  describes  a  sacred 
spring  *  about  eight  feet  in  diameter,  walled  round  with 
stones,  of  which  neither  cattle  nor  men  may  drink : 
the  animals  sacred  to  water  (frogs,  tortoises,  and  snakes) 
alone  must  enter  the  pool.  Once  a  year  the  cacique  and 
his  attendants  perform  certain  religious  rites  at  the  spring: 


t ) 


II 


^  Loc.  cit,  p.  67. 

^  Catliii's  North  American  Indians, 
vol.  i.  p.  160. 


^  Ecpnrt  on  the  Indian  Tribos,  p,  40. 
♦  aiiiller,  Amer.  Urrol.,  p.  40G. 
'"    Kthn.  .louni.  1869,  p.  227, 


20-1. 


POUTU    AMEPjrA. 


^i 


J   !'-  i  I 


'  <r 


'  !' 


it  is  tlioroiif^lily  cleared  out;  water- j^ots  arc  broiiglit  as  an 
ottering  to  the  si)irit  of  Montezuma,  antl  Jire  placed  bottom 
upwards  on  tlie  top  of  t]ie  wall  of  stones.  Many  of  these 
have  been  removed ;  but  some  still  remain,  while  the 
ground  around  is  strewn  with  fragments  of  vases  which 
have  crumbled  into  decay  from  age.' 

In  Peru  the  sea,  under  the  name  of  Mama  Cocha,  was 
the  princi;:al  deity  of  the  Chinchas ;  ^  one  branch  of  the 
Collas  deduced  their  origin  from  a  river,  the  others  from 
a  spring :  there  was  also  a  special  rain-goddess. 

In  Paraguay'  also  the  rivers  are  propitiated  by  off*cr- 
ings  of  tobacco. 

We  will  now  pass  to  the  worship  of  stones  and  moun- 
tains, a  form  of  religion  as  general  ixa  those  already 
described. 

M.  Dulaure,  in  his  *  Histoire  Abrogee  des  Cultes,'  explains 
the  origin  of  Stone-worship  as  arising  from  the  respect 
paid  to  boundary  stones.  I  do  not  doubt  that  the  worship 
of  some  particular  stones  may  thus  have  originated. 
Hermes  or  Termes  was  evidently  of  this  character,  and 
hence  w^e  may  perhaps  explain  the  peculiar  characteristics 
of  Hermes  or  Mercury,  whose  symbol  was  an  upright 
stone. 

Mercury  or  Hermes,  says  Lempriere,  *  w^as  the  mes- 
senger of  the  gods.  He  was  the  patron  of  travellers  and 
shepherds ;  he  conducted  the  so  ids  of  the  dead  into  the 
infernal  regions,  and  not  only  presided  over  orators,  mer- 
chants, and  declaimers,  but  he  was  also  the  god  of  thieves, 
pickpockets,  and  all  dishonest  persons.'  He  inveniod  the 
letters  and  the  lyre,  and  was  the  originator  of  arts  and 
sciences. 

It  is  difficult  at  first   to   see  the  connection  between 


'  Mullcr,  Amcr.  XJrrel.,  p.  308. 


'  Loc.  cit.  p.  258. 


lis  an 

otto  HI 

tliosc 
le  tlio 
-NvliicU 

Lii,  was 

of  the 

rs  from 


y 


ofFor- 


[  nionn- 
alreaJy 

explains 
1  respect 
I  worslr'p 
io-inatecl. 
iter,  and 
teristics 
upvij^lit 

}\e  mes- 

lUers  and 

into  tlie 

[ors,  nicr- 

If  tliievcs, 

mlod  tlio 

arts  and 

between 

58. 


THE    WOUSniP   OF    STONES. 


205 


these  various  offices,  charricterised  as  they  are  hj  siicli 
opposite  peculiarities.  Y(it  they  all  follow  from  the 
custom  of  markinfj  boundaries  by  upright  stones,  llenco 
the  name  Hermes,  or  Termes  the  boundary.  In  the 
troublous  times  of  old  it  was  nsual,  in  order  to  avoid 
disputes,  to  leave  a  tract  of  neutral  t(nTitory  between  the 
2>ossessions  of  different  nations.  These  are  called  marches  ; 
hence  the  title  of  Marquis,  which  means  an  officer  appointed 
to  watch  the  frontier  or  *  march.'  These  marches  not 
being  cultivated  served  as  grazing  grounds.  To  them 
came  merchants  in  order  to  exchange  on  neutral  ground  the 
products  of  their  respective  coantries ;  here  also  for  the 
same  reason  treaties  were  negotiated.  Here  again  inter- 
national games  and  sports  were  held.  Upright  stones 
were  used  to  indicate  places  of  burial ;  and  lastly  on  them 
were  engraved  laws  and  decrees,  records  of  remarkable 
events,  and  the  praises  of  the  deceased. 

Hence  Mercury,  represented  by  a  plain  upright  stone, 
was  the  god  of  travellers  because  he  was  a  landmark,  of 
shepherds  as  presiding  over  the  pastures;  he  conducted 
the  souls  of  the  dead  into  the  infernal  regions,  because  even 
in  very  early  days  upright  stones  were  used  as  tombstones ; 
he  was  the  god  of  merchants  because  commerce  was 
carried  on  principally  at  the  frontiers ;  and  of  thieves  out 
of  sarcasm.  He  was  the  messenger  of  the  gods,  because 
ambassadors  met  at  the  frontiers ;  and  of  eloquence  for 
the  same  reason.  He  invented  the  lyre  and  presided  over 
games,  because  contests  in  music,  &c.  were  held  on 
neutral  ground ;  and  he  invented  letters,  because  inscrip- 
tions were  engraved  on  upright  pillars. 

Stone-worship,  however,  in  its  simpler  forms  has,  I 
think,  a  different  origin  from  this,  and  is  merely  a  form 
of  that  indiscriminate  worship  which  characterises  the 
human  mind  in  a  particular  phase  of  development. 


'    I 


1  ;  ; 

■'   1  : 


!;  ;i 


■  "■'-^'— -'•'■"^' 


i:-'" 


fJf'M 


20G 


ASIA. 


Pallas  states  tliat  tlio  Ostyaks'  and  Tiingiiscs  woraliip 
mountains,'  *  and  tlic  Tatars  stones.'  Near  Lake  Baikal* 
is  a  sacred  rock  which  is  regarded  as  the  special  abode  of 
an  evil  spirit,  and  is  consequently  much  feared  by  the 
natives.  In  India  stone-worship  is  very  prevalent.  The 
Asagas  of  Mysore  'worship  a  god  called  Bhuma  Devam, 
who  is  represented  by  a  shapeless  stone.' ^  *  One  thing  is 
certain,'  says  Mr.  Hislop,  *  the  worship  (of  stones)  is  spread 
over  all  parts  of  the  country,  from  Berar  to  the  extreme 
east  of  Bustar,  and  that  not  merely  among  the  Hinduised 
aborigines,  who  had  begun  to  honour  Khandova,  &c.,  but 
among  the  rudest  and  most  savage  tribes.  He  is  generally 
adored  in  the  form  of  an  unshapely  stone  covered  with 
vermilion.'  ^  *  Two  rude  slave  castes  in  Tulava  (Southern 
India),  the  Bakadara  and  Betadara,  worship  a  benevolent 
deity  named  Buta,  represented  by  a  stone  kept  in  every 
house.' ^  Indeed,  *  in  evtry  part  of  Southern  India,  four  or 
five  stones  may  often  be  seen  in  the  ryots'  field,  placed  in 
a  row  and  daubed  with  red  paint,  which  they  consider  as 
guardians  of  the  field  and  call  the  five  Pandus.'^  Colonel 
Forbes  Leslie  supposes  that  this  red  paint  is  intended  to 
represent  blood.^  The  god  of  each  Khond  village  is 
represented  by  three  stones.'"  PI.  IV.  represents  a  group 
of  sacred  stones,  near  Delgaum  in  the  Dekkan,  from  a 
figure  given  by  Colonel  Forbes  Leslie  in  his  interesting 
work.*'  The  three  largest  stood  *  in  front  of  the  centre  of 
two  straight  lines,  each  of  which  consisted  of  thirteen 
stones.     These  lines  were  close  together,  and  the  edges  of 


!■:■-.;-.      4!-! 


*  Voyages  de  Pallas,  vol.  iv,  p.  79. 
2  Il)id.  pp.  434,  648. 

«  Had.  pp.  514,  698. 

*  Hill's  Travels  in  Siberia,  vol.  ii. 
p.  142. 

*  liuchanan's  Journey,  vol.  i.  p.  338. 
Quoted  in  Ethnol.  Journ.  vol.  viii.  p.  96. 

*  Aboriginal  Tribes,  p.  16.    Quoted 


in  Ethnol.  Journ.  vol.  viii.  p.  96. 

'  Journ.  Ethnol.  Soc.  vol.  \iii.  p.  1  Ih. 

'  Ibid.  vol.  ix.  p.  125. 

•  Early  Eaces  of  Scotland,  vol  ii. 
p.  462. 

'"  Loc.  cit.  vol.  ii.  p.  497. 

"  Loc.  cit.  vol.  ii.  p.  464. 


ryliip 
likal' 
tie  of 
y  tlio 
The 
evam, 
Ling  is 
spread 
drenie 
duised 
c,  but 
nerally 
i  witli 
lutliern 
evolent 
1  every 
four  or 
aced  in 
ider  as 
Colonel 
nded  to 
lage  is 
group 
from  a 
cresting 
jntre  of 
thirteen 
idges  of 

>.  96. 
tiii.p.  !!•'>• 

id,  voL  ii. 


ll' 


1'     /I 


fl 


i 

>      I 


en 


CO 


1^ 


it  !  • 


!  ' 


.  ii 


!    .  ill 


fit 

1  III 

niNDOSTAN. 


20: 


tilt'  stones  were  placed  as  near  to  oaeli  otlic.  uS  it  was 
possible  to  do  with  slabs  which,  allhongh  selected,  had 
never  been  artificially  shaped.  The  stone  in  the  centre  of 
each  lino  was  nearly  as  hign  as  the  hij^hest  of  the  ilireo 
that  stood  in  front,  but  the  others  gradually  decreased  in 
size  from  the  centre,  until  those  at  the  ends  were  less  than 
a  foot  above  the  ground,  into  which  they  were  all  secured. 
Three  stones,  not  fixed,  were  placed  in  front  of  the  centre 
of  the  group ;  they  occupied  the  same  position,  and  were 
intended  for  the  same  purposes,  as  those  in  tho  circular 
temple  just  described.  All  the  stones  had  been  selected  of 
an  angular  shape,  with  somewhat  of  an  obelisk  form  in 
general  appearance.  The  central  group  and  double  lines 
faced  nearly  east,  and  on  that  side  were  whitewashed. 
On  the  white,  near,  although  not  reaching  quite  to  the 
apex  of  each  stone,  nor  extending  altogether  to  the  sides, 
was  a  large  spot  of  red  paint,  two-thirds  of  which  from 
the  centre  were  blackened  over,  leaving  only  a  circular 
external  belt  of  red.  This  gave,  as  I  believe  it  was 
intended  to  do,  a  good  representation  of  a  large  spot  of 
blood.' 

In  connection  with  these  painted  stones  it  is  remarkable 
that  in  New  Zealand  red  is  a  sacred  colour,  and  *  the  way 
of  rendering  anything  tapu  was  by  making  it  red.  When 
a  person  died,  his  house  was  thus  painted ;  when  the  tapu 
was  laid  on  anything,  the  chief  erected  a  post  and  painted 
it  with  the  kura ;  wherever  a  corpse  rested,  some  memo- 
rial was  set  up ;  oftentimes  the  nearest  stone,  rock,  or  tree 
served  as  a  monument ;  but  whatever  object  was  selected, 
it  was  sure  to  be  painted  red.  If  the  corpse  was  conveyed 
by  water,  wherever  they  landed  a  similar  token  was  left ; 
and  when  it  reached  its  destination,  the  canoe  was 
dragged  on  shore,  painted  red,  and  abandoned.  When  the 
hahunga  took  place,  the  scraped  bones  of  the  chief  thus 


h ; 


r  ■  i 


l;i 


■  f'      '  \ 

■  i 


Ittyf: 


i-M  -i: 


jiLM    i^tU 


203 


UINDOSTAN. 


oriiaiiienlud,  and  wrapped  in  a  red-stained  mat,  were  de- 
posited in  a  box  or  bowl  smeared  with  the  siiiU'ed  colonr, 
and  phiced  in  a  jiaintcd  tomb.  Near  his  final  resting- 
place  a  lofty  and  elaborately  carved  monument  was  erected 
to  his  memory ;  this  was  called  the  tiki,  which  was  also 
thus  coloured.'*    Red  was  also  a  sacred  colour  in  Conjjo.' 

Colonel  Dalton  describes^  a  ceremony  which,  as  he  truly 
observes,  curiously  resembles  the  well-known  scene  in  the 
life  of  Elijah,  when  he  recalled  Israel  to  the  old  faith  by 
producing  rain  when  the  priests  of  Baal  had  failed  to  do 
so.  The  Sonthals  worship  a  conspicuous  hill  called  *  Ma- 
rang  Boroo.'  In  times  of  drought  they  go  to  the  top  of 
the  sacred  mountain,  and  offer  their  sacrifices  on  a  large 
Hat  stone,  playing  on  drums  and  beseeching  their  god  for 
rain.  *  They  shake  their  heads  violently,  till  they  work 
themselves  into  a  phrensy,  and  the  movement  becomes 
involuntary.  They  go  on  thus  wildly  gesticulating,  till  a 
"  little  cloud  like  a  man's  hand "  is  seen.  Then  they 
arise,  take  up  the  drums,  and  dance  the  kurrun  on  the 
rock,  till  Mar  an  g  Boroo's  response  to  their  prayer  is  heard 
in  the  distant  rumbling  of  thunder,  and  they  go  home 
rejoicing.  They  must  go  "fasting  to  the  mount,"  and 
stay  there  till  "there  is  a  sound  of  abundance  of  rain," 
when  they  get  them  down  to  eat  and  drink.  My  informant 
tells  me  it  always  comes  before  evening.' 

The  Arabians  also  down  to  the  time  of  Mahomet  wor- 
shipped a  black  stone.  The  Phoenicians  also  worshipped  a 
deity  under  the  form  of  an  unshaped  stone.'*  The  god 
Heliogabalus  was  merely  a  black  stone  of  a  conical  form. 
Upright  stones  were  worshipped  by  the  Eomans  and  the 
Greeks  under  the  name  of  Hermes   or  Mercurv.      The 


'  Taylor's  New   Zealand    and    the  »  Trans.  Etlin.  Soc.  N.  S.  vol.  vi. 

New  Zoalandcrs,  p.  95.  p.  35. 

^  Merolla,  Pinkertun,   vol.   xvi,  p.  *  Jvenrick's  Pbocnicia,  p.  323. 
273. 


ore  do- 
colouv, 

erected 
iras  also 
longo.' 
tie  truly 
3  in  the 
faitli  by 
ed  to  do 
;d  *Ma- 
e  top  of 
1  a  large 
r  god  for 
ley  work 
becomea 
■,  till  a 
lien  tliey 
[1  on  the 
is  heard 
■o  home 
|nt,"  and 
it  ram," 
Liformant 

let  wor- 
shipped a 

The  god 
leal  form, 
and  the 
rv.     The 

S.  vol.  vi. 
323. 


CREECK.       LAI'LANI).      rilAXCn. 


209 


Tlicspiaiis  hud  a  rude  stone  whicli  they  regarded  as  :i 
deity,  and  the  Bd.'otians  worshippi'd  llrrcnles  under  tlie 
same  form.'  The  Laplanders  also  Lad  sacred  mountains 
and  rocks.' 

In  "Western  Europe  during  the  middle  ages  \V(»  meet 
with  several  denunciations  of  stone-worship,  proving  its 
deep  hold  on  the  people.  Thus  *  the  worship"'  of  stones  was 
condemned  by  Theodoric,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  in 
the  seventh  century,  and  is  among  the  acts  of  heathenism 
forbidden  by  King  Edgar  in  the  tenth,  and  by  Cnut  in  the 
eleventh  century.  In  a  council  held  at  Tours  in  a.d.  5(17 
priests  were  admonished  to  shut  the  doors  of  their  church(>s 
against  all  persons  worshi2)ping  upright  stones,  and  Ma  he 
states  that  a  manuscrii)t  record  of  the  proceedings  of  a 
council  held  at  Nantes  in  the  seventh  century  makes 
mention  of  the  stone-worship  of  the  Americans.' 

*Les  Fran^ais,'  says  Dulaure,*  *adorerent  des  pierrcs 
plusieurs  siecles  apres  Tetablissement  du  christianisme 
parmi  eux.  Diverses  lois  civiles  et  religieuses  attestent 
I'existence  de  ce  culte.  Un  capitulaire  de  Charlemagne, 
et  le  concile  de  Lei^tine,  de  I'an  T-IS,  defendent  les  cere- 
monies superstitieuses  qui  se  pratiquent  aupres  des  pierres 
et  aupres  des  Fans  consacres  a  Mercure  et  Jupiter.  Le 
concile  de  Nantes,  cite  par  Keginon,  fait  la  meme  defense. 
II  nous  apprend  que  ces  pierres  etaient  situees  dans  des 
lieux  agrestes,  et  que  le  peuple,  dupe  des  tromperies  des 
demons,  y  apporiiiit  ses  voeux  et  ses  offrandes.  Les 
conciles  d'Arles,  de  Tours,  le  capitulaire  d'Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle,  de  I'an  789,  et  plusieurs  synodes,  renouvellent  ces 
prohibitions.' 

In  Ireland  in  the  fifth  century,  King  Laoghaire  wor- 
shipped a  stone  pillar  called  the  Crom-Cruach,  which  was 


'  See  De  Crosses,  he.  cit.  p.  155. 
'  Dulaiire,  he.  cit.  p.  50. 


*  Forbes  Leslie,  Jor.  cit.  voi.  i.  p.  256. 

*  Dulanrp,  he.  cit.  vol.  i.  p.  304. 


Ill  mil ' 


♦••I! 


f  i' 


210 


inKLAND.      AI'UK'A. 


Hi 


ovortlirow'i  l)y  St.  Patrick.  Anotlior  si  one  at  Clo^luT  wiiH 
WDr.shipiMMl  hy  tlio  Trisli  uiulcr  <lio  uann'  of  Kcrmaml- 
Ki'lstach.*  Tlioro  •was  a  sacred  stoiio  in  Jura,"  rijuinl 
which  the  i)C(»[)I(!  u.scd  to  move  '  dcasil,'  i.e.  sunwise.  '  In 
Home  of  the  Jlehrides''  the  people  attributed  oracular 
power  to  a  larj^^e  black  stone.'  In  the  island  of  Hkye  '  in 
every  district  there  is  to  be  met  with  a  rude  stone  conse- 
crated to  Gruafj'ach  or  Apollo.  The  Rev.  Mr.  McQueen  of 
Skye  says  that  in  almost  every  villaj^c  the  sun,  called 
(Jru^Mch  or  the  Fair-haired,  is  represented  by  a  rude  stone ; 
and  ho  further  states  that  libations  of  milk  were  poured 
on  the  gruaich-stones.' 

Passing  to  Africa,  Caillie  observed  near  the  negro  village 
of  N'pal  a  sacred  stone,  on  which  everyone  as  he  passed 
thre\vf  a  thread  out  of  his  *  pagne  '  or  breech  cloth,  as  a  sort 
of  offering.  The  natives  tirnily  believe  that  when  any 
danger  threatens  the  village,  this  stone  leaves  its  place 
and  *  moves  thrice  round  it  in  the  preceding  night,  by 
way  of  warning.'* 

Bruce  observes  that  the  pagan  Abyssiniu-is  '  worship  a 
tree,  and  likewise  a  stone.' ''' 

The  Tahitians  believed  in  two  principal  gods ;  *  the 
Supreme  Deity,  one  of  these  two  first  beings,  they  call 
Taroataihetoomoo,  and  the  other,  whom  they  suppose  to 
have  been  a  rock,  Tepapa.'" 

In  the  Feejee'  Islands  *  rude  consecrated  stones  (fig.  20) 
are  to  be  seen  near  Vuna,  where  offerings  of  food  are 
sometimes  made.  Another  stands  on  a  reef  near  Naloa 
to  which  the  natives  tama ;  and  one  near  Thokova,  Na 
Viti  Levu,  named  Lovekaveka,  is  regarded  as  the  abode  of 


*  13nicp's  TravolR,  vol.  vi.  p.  343. 
"  ITiuvkosworth's  Voyages,  vol.  ii. 


'  Dr.  Todd's  St.  Patrick,  p.  127. 
2  Martin's  Western  Islos,  p.  2H. 

*  Forbes  Leslie,  ioc.  cit.  vol.  i.   p.     p.  23S. 

257.  '  VVilliaTDs'    Fiji   and   the   Fijiani?, 

*  Cailli^,  vol.  i,  p.  25.  vol.  i.  p.  220, 


V   NVllM 

iiiiud- 
round 
Mil 
aciilav 
yro  '  ill 
consc- 
100 u  of 
ciilU**!^ 
stone ; 
puiiivd 

>villa>p,'c 
piissed 
s  a  sort 
Lcn  any 
;s  place 


lit,  by 


ji'sliip  a 

;  <  the 
lioy  call 
moso  to 

l(fig.  20) 
food  are 
ir  Naloa 

)va,  Na 
ibode  of 

p.  313. 
'S,  vol.   ii. 

le  rijians, 


PACIFIC   ISLANDS. 


211 


n  ^j^oddcsa,  for  wlioiii  food  i.s  provldtMl.  TIiIm,  as  aocii  in  the 
€'iii,M'avin^,  is  like  a  round  black  niilostono,  sli;^'lilly  iiu  liiu'd, 
and  havin;^  a  likii  (i^irdle)  tied  round  the  middle.  The  .shrine 
ot'O  Itewau  is  alarj^'e  stone,  which,  like  the  one  near  Naloa, 
hates  nioarputoes,  and  keeps  them  from  colleetin<^  near 
where  he  rules;  he  has  also  two  large  stones  for  his  wives, 
one  of  whom   came   from  Yandua,   and   the  other  from 

I'lo.  20. 


■f-ii 


•i-"-  Vr-'s 


BACHED  STONES.     (Fcojco  Islands.) 


,v:^- 


Tasawa.  Althongli  no  one  pretends  to  know  the  orif^in 
of  Ndengei,  it  is  said  that  his  mother,  in  the  fomi  of  two 
great  stones,  lies  at  the  bottom  of  a  moat.  Stones  are 
also  used  to  denote  the  locality  of  some  other  gods,  and 
the  occasional  resting  places  of  others.  On  the  southern 
beaches  of  Vanua  Levu,  a  large  stone  is  seen  which  has 
fallen  upon  a  smaller  one.  These,  it  is  said,  represent  the 
gods  of  two  towns  on  that  coast  fighting,  and  their  quarrel 


I  n 


m 


\  1  ' 

1 

r"' 

^1 


212 


AMKRICA. 


has  for  years  been  adopted  by  tliose  towns.  The  Suma- 
trans  also,  as  already  mentioned  {ante,  p.  195),  had  sacred 
stones. 

Prescott^  says,  that  a  Dacotah  Indian  *  will  pick  up  a 
round  stone,  of  any  kind,  and  paint  it,  and  go  a  few  rods 
from  his  lodge,  and  clean  away  the  grass,  say  from  one  to 
two  feet  in  diameter,  and  there  place  his  stone,  or  god,  as 
he  would  term  it,  and  make  an  offering  of  some  tobacco 
and  some  feathers,  and  pray  to  the  stone  to  deliver  him 
from  some  danger  that  he  has  probably  dreamed  of,  or 
from  imagination.' 

Tlie  Monitarris  also  before  any  great  undertaking  were 
in  the  habit  of  making  offerings  to  a  sacred  stone  named 
Mill  Choppenish.^  In  Florida  a  mountain  called  Olaimi 
was  worshipped,  and  the  Natchez  of  Louisiana  had  a  deity 
which  was  a  conical  stone.^ 

Fire-worship  is  so  widely  distributed  as  to  be  almost 
universal.  Since  the  introduction  of  lucifer  matches  we 
can  hardly  appreciate  the  difficulty  which  a  savage  has  in 
obtaining  a  light,  especially  in  damp  weather.  It  is  said, 
however,  that  some  Australian  tribes  did  not  know  how 
to  do  so,  and  that  others,  if  their  fire  went  out,  would 
go  many  miles  to  borrow  a  spark  from  another  tribe, 
rather  than  attempt  to  produce  a  new  one  for  themselves. 
Hence  in  several  very  widely  separated  parts  of  the 
world  we  find  it  has  been  customary  to  tell  off  some  one 
or  more  persons  whose  sole  duty  it  should  be  to  keep  up 
a  continual  fire.  Hence,  no  doubt,  the  origin  of  the  Vestal 
virgins,  and  he:ice  also  the  idea  of  the  sacredness  of  fire 
would  naturally  arise. 

According  to  Lafitau,^  M.  Huet,  in  a  w^)lk  which  I  have 


>  Schoolcraft's  Indian    Tribes,  vol.     p.  178, 
ii.  p.  229,     Lafitaii,  vol.  ii.  p.  321,  "  Lafitau,  vol.  i.  p.  146, 

*  Klemm,  Cultur.  gesehichte,  vol.  ii.         *  Loc,  cif.  vol.  i.  p.  153. 


FIIlE-WORSniP. 


21;J 


5uma- 
sacrcd 

i  up  a 
iv  rods 
one  to 
god,  as 
tobacco 
er  liim 
1  of,  or 

n<T  were 
3  named 
L  Olainii 
I  a  deity 

almost 
xlies  we 
re  has  in 
is  said, 
^low  how 
^t,  would 
ler  tribe, 
imselves. 
of   tlie 
Isome  one 
keep  up 
lie  Yestal 
[ss  of  fire 

:li  I  liave 


not  been  able  to  see,  *  fait  une  longue  enumeration  dcs 
peuples  qui  entretenoicnt  ce  feu  sacre,  et  il  cite  partout 
ses  autorites,  de  sorte  qu'il  paroit  qu'il  n'y  avoit  point  do 
partie  du  monde  connu,  ou  ce  culte  ne  fut  universellement 
ropandu.     Dans  I'Asie,  outre  les  Juifs  et  les  Clialdeens 
dont  nous  venous  de  parler,  outre  les  peuples  de  Phrygie, 
de  Lycie,  ot  de  TAsie-Mineure,  il  etoit   encore  cliez  les 
Perses,  les  Modes,  les  Scythes,  les  Sarmates,  chez  toutes 
les  nations  du  Ponte  et  de  la  Cappadoce,  chez  toutes  celles 
des  Indes,  ou  Ton  se  faisoit  un  devoir  de  se  jcter  dans  les 
flammes,  et  de  s'y  consumer  en  holocauste,  et  chez  toutes 
celles  des  deux  Arabics,  ou  cliaque  jour  a  certaines  lieures 
on  faisoit  un  sacrifice  an  feu,  dans  lequel  plusieurs  per- 
sonnes  so  devouoient.  Dans  I'Afrique  il  etoit  non-seulement 
chez  les  Egyptiens,  qui  entretenoicnt  ce  feu  immoi'tel  dans 
chaquc  temple,  ainsi  que  I'assure  Porphyre,  mais  encore 
dans  I'Ethiopie,  dans  la  Lybie,  dans  le  temple  de  Jupiter 
Amnion,  et  chez  les  Atlantiques,  ou  Hiarbas,  roy  des  Gara- 
mantes  et  des  Getules,  avoit  dresse  cent  autels,  et  consacre 
autant  de  feux,  que  Virgile  appelle  des  feux  vigilans  et  les 
gardes  eternelles  des  dieux.     Dans  I'Europe  le  culte  '^e 
Vesta  etoit  si  bien  etabli,  que,  sans  parler  de  Eome  et  de 
ritalie,  il  n'y  avoit  point  de  ville  de  la  Grece  qui  n'eut  un 
temple,  un  prytanee,  et  un  feu  eternel,  ainsi  que  le  remarque 
Casaubon  dans  ses  "  Notes  sur  Athenee."      Les  temples 
celebres  d'Hercule  dans  les  Espagnes,  et  dans  les  Gaules, 
celui  de  Vulcain  an  Mont  Ethna,  de  Venus  Erycine,  avoieiit 
tons  leurs  pyrethes  ou  feux  sacres.    On  peut  citer  de  sembla- 
bles  temoignages  des  nations  les  plus  reculees  dans  le  nord, 
qui  etoient  toutes  originaires  des  Scythes  et  des  Sarmates. 
Enfin  M.  Huet  pretend  qu'il  n'y  a  pas  encore  long-temps  quo 
ce  culte  a  cte  aboli  dans  rilybernie  et  dans  la  Moscovie, 
qu'il  est  encore  aujourd'hui,  non-seulement  chez  les  Gaures, 
mais  encore  chez  les  Tartares,  les  Chinois,  et  dans  TAme- 


;i 

■ 

J! 

\  \ 

il 

i 

1 

1 : 
1  ■ 

I  : 

I  I 


ttii: 


II: 


i  1 


i! 

ill 

'*?  ' 


I       -I 


I 

I 
,i 

'! 

I 
} 


»l 


2U 


WOESniP   OF   THE   HEAVEXLT   BODIES. 


rique  cliez  les  Mexiquains.  II  pouvoit  encore  en  ajouter 
d'autrcs.' 

The  Natchez  had  a  temple  in  which  they  kept  up  a 
perpetual  fire.'  The  Ojibwas^  maintained  *  a  continual  firo 
as  a  symbol  of  their  nationality.  They  maintained  also 
a  civil  polity,  which,  however,  was  much  mixed  up  with 
their  religious  and  medicinal  beliefs.'  In  Mexico  also 
we  find  the  same  idea  of  sacred  fire.  Colonel  McLeod 
has  seen  the  sacred  fire  still  kept  burning  in  some  of  tho 
valleys  of  So  tL  Mexico.^  At  the  great  festival  of  Xiuh- 
molpia,  the  priests  and  people  went  in  procession  to  the 
mountain  of  Huixachtecatl ;  then  an  unfortunate  victim 
was  stretched  on  the  *  stone  of  sacrifice,'  and  killed  by  a 
priest  with  a  knife  of  obsidian ;  the  dish  made  use  of  to 
kindle  the  new  fire  was  then  placed  on  the  wound,  and 
fire  was  obtained  by  friction.* 

In  Peru^  *  the  sacred  flame  was  entrusted  to  the  care  of 
the  virgins  of  the  sun ;  and  if,  by  any  neglect,  it  was 
suffered  to  go  out  in  the  course  of  the  year,  the  event  was 
regarded  as  a  calamity  that  boded  some  strange  disaster 
to  the  monarchy.' 

Fire  is  also  regarded  as  sacred  in  Congo. 

No  one  can  wonder  that  the  worship  of  sun,  moon,  and 
stars  is  very  widely  distributed.  It  can,  however,  scarcely 
be  regarded  as  of  a  higher  character  than  the  preceding 
forms  of  Totemism ;  it  is  unknown  in  Australia,  and  almost 
so  in  Africa. 

In  hot  countries  the  sun  is  generally  regarded  as  an 
evil,  and  in  cold  as  a  beneficent,  being.     It  was  the  chief 


'  Lafitnu,  vol.  i.  p.  167. 

*  Warren  in  Schoolcraft's  Indian 
Tribe?.,  vol.  ii.  p.  138.  Soo  also  Whip- 
ple's lipport  on  Indian  Tribes,  p.  36. 

»  Jour.  Ellin.  Soc.  1869,  p.  226.  Soo 


also  p.  246. 

*  Humboldt's  Researches,  London, 
1824,  vol.  i.  pp.  225,  382.  Lafitan, 
vol.  i.p.  170. 

**  rrescolt,  vol.  i.  p.  99. 


T 


1  ;; 
1  '! 


AMERICA. 


215 


li 


j  outer 

u^)  a 
lal  firo 
;d  also 
p  -with. 
;o  also 
IcLeod 

of  tlio 
■  XiuK- 
,  to  the 
!  victim 
edby  a 
se  of  to 
md,  and 

3  care  of 

it  was 

rent  was 

disaster 


loon,  and 

scarcely 

Ireceding 

id  almost 


}d  as  an 
tlie  cliief 


los,  LotkIoh, 
b.    Lafttau, 


object  of  roli<^ions  worship  among  the  Natchez/  and  was 
also  worshipped  by  the  Navajos,  and  other  allied  tribes  in 
N.  America.^  Among  the  Comanches  of  Texas  *the  sun, 
moon,  and  eartli  are  the  principal  objects  of  worship/* 
Lafitau  observes  that  the  Americans  did  not  worship  the 
stars  and  planets,  but  only  the  sun.^  The  Ahts  of  Nortli- 
west  America  worship  both  the  sun  and  moon,  but 
especially  the  latter.  They  regard  the  sun  as  feminine 
and  the  moon  as  masculine,  being,  moreover,  the  husband 
of  the  sun.'  It  has  been  said  that  tbe  Esquimaux  of 
Greenland  used  to  worship  the  sun.  This,  however,  seems 
more  than  doubtful,  and  Crantz''  expressly  denies  the 
statement. 

In  South  America  the  Coroados  worship  the  sun  and 
moon,  the  moon  being  the  greatest.^  The  Abipones^ 
thought  that  they  were  descended  from  the  Pleiades,  and 
'  as  that  constellation  disappears  at  certain  periods  from 
the  shy  of  South  America,  upon  such  occasions  they 
suppose  that  their  grandfather  is  sick,  and  are  under  a 
yearly  apprehension  that  he  is  going  to  die :  but  as  soon 
as  those  seven  stars  are  again  visible  in  the  month  of  May, 
they  welcome  their  grandfather,  as  if  returned  and  re- 
stored from  sickness,  with  joyful  shouts,  and  the  festive 
sound  cf  pipes  and  trumpets,  congratulating  him  on  the 
recovery  of  his  health.' 

In  Central  India  '  the  worship  of  the  sun  as  the  Supremo 
Deity  is  the  foundation  of  the  religion  of  the  Hos  and 

'  Robertson's   America,  bk.    iv.  p.  ■*  Loc.  cit.  vol.  i.  p.  1 10. 

126.  *  Sproat's    Scones    and   Studies   of 

'■*  Whipple's  Report  on  Indian  Tribes,  Savage  Life,  p.  206. 

p.  36.  Lafitau,  vol.  ii.  p.  189.  Tertre's  *  Loc.  cit.  vol.  i.  p.   196.     See  al.so 

History  of  the  Caribby  Islands,  p.  2o6.  Graah's  Voyage  to  Greenland,  p.  \'1\. 

*  Neighbors  in  Schoolcraft's  Indian  ^  Spix  and  Martins,  vol.  ii.  p.  2i;3. 

Tribes,  vol.  ii.  p.  127.  '  1-oc.  cit.  vol.  ii.  p.  65. 


f 


0\i\ 


1  I 


) 


I 


01 


216 


INDIA.      POLYNESIA. 


Oraoiis  as  well  as  of  the  ISIoonclnlis.  By  tlie  former  lie  is 
iiivoked  as  Dliurini,  tlie  Holy  One.  He  is  the  Cieator  and 
the  Preserver,  and  with  reference  to  his  purity,  white 
animals  are  offered  to  him  by  his  votaries.'*  The  sun  and 
moon  are  both  regarded  as  deities  by  the  Khonds,  though 
no  ceremonial  worship  is  addressed  to  them.'  In  Northern 
Asia  the  Samoyedes  are  said  to  have  worshipped  the  sun 
and  moon. 

As  might  naturally  be  expected  from  their  habits,  and 
particularly  from  their  partiality  for  nocturnal  ceremonies, 
we  find  traces  of  moon-worship  among  the  Negroes.  In 
"Western  Africa,  according  to  MeroUa,'  *  at  the  appearance 
of  every  new  moon,  these  people  fall  on  their  knees,  or  else 
cry  out,  standing  and  clapping  their  hands,  "  So  may  I 
renew  my  life  as  thou  art  renewed."  '  They  do  not,  how- 
ever, appear  to  venerate  either  the  sun  or  the  stars.  Bruce 
also  mentions  moon-worship  as  occurring  among  the 
Shangallas.'* 

It  is  remarkable  that  the  heavenly  bodies  do  not  appear 
to  be  worshipped  by  the  Polynesians. 

According  to  Lord  Karnes,  '  the  inhabitants  of  Celebes 
formerly  acknowledged  no  gods  but  the  sun  and  moon."'' 
The  people  of  Borneo  also  are  said  to  have  done  the  same. 

Thus,  then,  I  have  attempted  to  show  that  animals  and 
plants,  water,  mountains  and  stones,  fire  and  the  heavenly 
bodies,  are,  or  have  been,  all  very  extensively  worshipped. 

These,  indeed,  are  the  principal  deities  of  man  in  this 
stage  of  his  religious  development.  They  are,  however, 
by  no  means  the  only  ones.  The  Scythians  worshipped 
an  iron  scimetar  as  a  symbol  of  Mars ;  '  to  this  scimetar 

'  Colonel  Dalton,  Trans.  Ethn.  Soc.  xv.  p.  273. 
vol.  vi.  p.  33.  *  Tnivcls,  vol.  iv,  p.  35,  vol.  vi.  p. 

*  Forbes    Leslie.     Early  Races   of  344. 
Scotland,  vol.  ii.  p.  496.  *  History  of  Man,  vol.  iv.  p.  252. 

'  Voyage  lo  Congo,  Pinkerton,  vol. 


SUNDRY   WORSHIPS. 


217 


r  lie  is 
or  and 
■wliito 
un  and 
thongli 
ortlicrn 
,he  sun 

its,  and 
jinonies, 

oes.     In 
pearance 

IS,  or  else 
o  may  I 
lot,  how- 
s.  Bruce 
ong    tlie 

)t  appear 

If  Celebes 

moon.'"''' 
le  same, 
imals  and 

heavenly 
|)rsliipped. 
m  in  this 

however, 
lorshipped 

scimetar 

J5,  vol.  vi.  p. 
liv.  p.252. 


they  bring  yearly  sacrifices  of  cattle  and  horses  ;  and 
to  these  scimetars  they  offer  more  sacrifices  than  to  the 
rest  of  their  gods.'  *  In  the  Sagas  many  of  the  swords 
have  special  names,  and  are  treated  with  the  greatest 
respect.  Similarly  the  Feejeeans  regarded  *  certain  clubs 
with  superstitious  respect; '^  and  the  Negroes  of  Ira  wo, 
a  town  in  Western  Yoruba,  vrorshipped  an  iron  bar  with 
very  expensive  ceremonies.^  The  New  Zealanders  and 
some  of  the  Melanesians  worshipped  the  rainbow.* 

In  Central  India,  as  mentioned  in  p.  191,  a  great  variety 
of  inanimate  objects  are  treated  as  deities.  The  Todas  are 
said  to  worship  a  buffalo-bell.*  The  Kotas  worship  two 
silver  plates,  which  they  regard  as  husband  and  wife ; 
'  they  have  no  other  deity.'  ^  The  Kurumbas  worship  stones, 
trees,  and  anthills.''  The  Toreas,  another  Neilgherry  Hill 
tribe,  worship  especially  a  *  gold  nose-ring,  which  probably 
once  belonged  to  one  of  their  women.'*  Many  other  in- 
animate objects  have  also  been  worshipped.  De  Brosses 
even  mentions  an  instance  of  a  king  of  hearts  being  made 
into  a  deity.'  According  to  Nonnius,  the  sacred  lyre 
sang  the  victory  of  Jupiter  over  the  Titans  without  being 
touched. '" 

According  to  some  of  the  earlier  travellers  in  America, 
even  the  rattle  was  regarded  as  a  deity.''  *  The  vet, 
Hierome  Staad,  et  le  Sieur  de  Leri,  qui  nous  ont  donne 
les  premieres  relations  des  ma3urs  des  Bresiliens,  parois- 
sent  persuadee  que  ces  peuples  regardent  ces  Maraca  ou 
Tamaraca  comme  une  espece  de  divinite  ;  qu'ils  les  hono- 


'  Iler.  iv.  62.  See  also  Klomm, 
Werkzeiige  und  Waffen,  p.  225. 
^  Fiji  and  the  Fijians,  vol.  i.  p.  219. 
'  Burton's  Abbookuta,  vol.  i.  p.  192, 
4  Trans.  Ethn.  Soc.  1870,  p.  367 
*  The  Tribes  of  the  NciJghorries, 
p.  15. 


«  J/n(l.ip.  114. 

'  Trans.  Ethn.  Soc.  vol.  vii.  p.  27fi. 

*  The  Tribes   of  the  Neilgherries, 
'.  C7. 

"  Z'^r  cit.  p.  52. 
'0  Lafitau,  vol.  i.  p.  205. 

"  Ihid.  p.  211. 


^1 


;  ,t 


im 


s 


II 


!  i 


ii 
■  i 


2JS 


WORSHIP   OP   THE    RATTLE. 


rent  d'uii  culte  religienx ;  qn'ils  s'en  serrcnt  Jans  toutes 
les  occasions  ou  la  religion  a  quelque  part ;  que  cliaque 
menage  a  le  sien,  a  qui  il  offre  constamment  des  offrandes; 
et  surtout  que  leur  usage  est  tellement  consacre  a  la  divi- 
nation, que  ces  sauvages  semblent  croire  que  ces  Maraca 
font  le  siege,  le  lieu  de  la  residence  de  Tesprit,  qui  les 
inspire,  et  qui  de-la  parle  d'une  maniere  ciaire,  distincte, 
et  leui'  fait  savoir  toutes  ses  volontes.* 


!i 


CHAPTER  VI. 

RELIGION  {concluded), 

IN  order  to  realise  clearly  tlie  essential  cliaracteristics  of 
tlie  religions  of  different  races,  we  must  bear  in  mind 
that  in  the  stage  at  which  we  have  now  arrived  in  the 
course  of  our  enquiry,  the  modifications  of  which  a 
religion  is  susceptible  may  be  divided  into  two  classes, 
viz.,  developmental  and  adaptalional.  I  use  the  term  *  de- 
velopmental' to  signify  those  changes  which  arise  from 
the  intellectual  progress  of  the  race.  Thus  a  more 
elevated  idea  of  the  Deity  is  a  developmental  change.  On 
the  other  hand,  a  northern  people  is  apt  to  look  on  the 
sun  as  a  beneficent  deity,  while  to  a  tropical  race  he  would 
suggest  drought  and  destruction.  Again,  hunters  tend  to 
worship  the  moon,  agriculturists  the  sun.  These  I  call 
adaptational  modifications.  They  are  changes  produced, 
not  by  difference  of  race  or  of  civilisation,  but  by 
physical  causes. 

In  some  cases  the  character  of  the  language  has  pro- 
bably exercised  much  influence  over  that  of  religion.  No 
one,  for  instance,  can  fail  to  be  struck  by  the  differ- 
ences existing  between  the  Aryan  and  Semitic  religions. 
All  Aryan  races  have  a  complicated  mythology,  which  is 
not  the  case  with  the  Semitic  races.  Moreover,  the 
character  of  the  gods  is  quite  different.  The  latter  have 
El,  Strong;  Bel  or  Baal,  Lord;  Adonis,  Lord;  Sliet, 
Master ;  Moloch,  King ;  Ram  and  Rimmon,  the  Exalted ; 
and  other  similar  names  for  their  deities.     The  Aryans,  on 


:'!i 


tp 


ii' 


220   DEVELOPMENT   AND   ADAPTATIONAL   MODIFICATIONS. 


fM'j 


the  contrary,  Zeus,  tlie  sky ;  riKX'Liis  Apullo,  the  sun ; 
Neptune,  the  sea ;  Mars,  war ;  Venus,  beauty,  &c.  Max 
Miiller'  has  very  ingeniously  endeavoured  to  exphiin  this 
difterence  by  the  different  character  of  the  Umguage  in 
tlieso  two  races. 

In  Semitic  words  the  root  remains  always  distinct  and 
unmistakeable.  In  Aryan,  on  the  contrary,  it  soon  becomes 
altered  and  disguised.  Hence  Semitic  dictionaries  arc 
mostly  arranged  according  to  the  roots,  a  method  which  in 
Aryan  languages  would  be  most  inconvenient,  the  root 
being  often  obscure,  and  in  many  cases  doubtful.  Now 
take  such  an  expression  as  *  the  sky  thunders.'  In  any 
Semitic  tongue  the  word  *  sky '  would  remain  unaltered, 
and  so  clear  in  its  meaning,  that  it  would  with  difficulty 
come  to  be  thought  of  as  a  proper  name.  But  among  the 
Aryans  the  Sanskrit  Dyaus,the  sky,became  the  Greek  Zeus, 
and  when  the  Greek  said  Zsvs  jSpovra  his  idea  was  not  the 
sky  thunders,  but  *  Zeus  thunders.'  When  the  Gods  were 
thus  once  created,  the  mythology  follows  as  a  matter  of 
course.  Some  of  the  statements  may  be  obscure,  but 
when  we  are  told  that  Hupnos,  the  god  of  sleep,  was  the 
father  of  Morpheus,  the  god  of  dreams;  or  that  Venus 
married  to  Vulcan,  lost  her  heart  to  Mars,  and  that  the 
intrigue  was  made  known  to  Vulcan  by  Apollo,  the  sun, 
we  can  clearly  see  how  such  myths  might  have  arisen. 

The  attitude  of  the  ancients  towards  them  is  very 
interesting.  Homer  and  Hesiod  relate  them,  appa- 
rently without  suspicion,  and  we  may  be  sure  that  the 
uneducated  public  received  them  without  a  doubt.  So- 
crates, however,  explains  the  story  that  Boreas  carried 
off  Oreithyia  from  the  Ilissos,  to  mean  that  Oreithyia  was 
blown  off  the  rocks  by  the  north  wind.     Ovid  also  says 


Soo  MuUer's  Chips  from  a  Gorman  AVorkshop,  vol.  i.  p.  303. 


ONS. 

he  sun; 
c.  Mux 
lain  this 
ruage  in 

binct  and 
becomes 
aries  are 
wliicli  in 
tlie  root 
ul.     Now 
'     In  any 
analtered, 
difficulty 
imong  the 
reek  Zeus, 
as  not  the 
Gods  were 
matter  of 
scure,  hut 
Ip,  was  the 
hat  Venus 
that  the 
L  the  sun, 
[arisen. 
11   is  very 
jm,    appa- 
that  the 
)ubt.     So- 
jas  earned 
^ithyia  was 
also  says 

3G3. 


ORIGIN   OP   MYTHS. 


221 


that  under  the  name  of  Vesta,  more  fire  is  to  be  under- 
stood. We  can  hardly  doubt  that  many  others  also  must 
have  clearly  porccivcd  the  origin  of  at  any  rate  a  portion 
of  these  myths,  but  they  were  probably  restrained  fi-Diu 
expressing  their  opinion  by  the  dread  of  incurring  the 
odium  of  heterodoxy. 

One  great  charm  of  this  explanation  is  that  we  thns 
remove  some  of  the  revolting  features  of  ancient  myths. 
Thu3  as  the  sun  destroys  the  darkness  from  which  it 
si^rings,  and  at  evening  disappears  in  the  twilight;  so 
Qi]dipus  was  fabled  to  have  killed  his  father,  and  then 
married  his  mother.  In  this  way  the  whole  of  that  terrible 
story  may  be  explained  as  arising,  not  from  the  dep  avity 
of  the  human  heart,  but  from  a  mistaken  application  of 
the  statement  that  the  sun  destroys  the  darkness,  and 
ultimately  marries,  as  it  were,  the  twilight  from  wliich  it 
sprang. 

But  although  Poetry  may  thus  throw  much  light  on  the 
origin  of  the  myths  which  formed  the  religion  of  Greece 
and  Rome,  it  cannot  explain  the  origin  or  character  of 
religion  among  the  lower  savages,  because  a  mythology  such 
as  that  of  Greece  and  Rome  can  only  arise  amongst  a  people 
which  have  already  made  considerable  progress.  Tempting, 
therefore,  as  it  may  be  to  seek  in  the  nature  of  language 
and  the  use  of  poetical  expressions,  an  explanation  of  the 
religious  systems  of  the  lower  races,  and  fully  admitting 
the  influence  wliich  these  causes  have  exercised,  we  must 
look  deeper  for  the  origin  of  religion,  and  can  be  satisfied 
only  by  an  exj)lanation  which  is  applicable  to  the  lowest 
races  possessing  any  religious  opinions.  In  the  preceding 
chapters  I  have  attempted  to  do  this,  and  to  show  how 
certain  phenomena,  as  for  instance  sleep  and  dreams,  pain, 
disease,  and  death,  have  naturally  created  in  the  savage 
mind  a  belief  in  the  existence  of  mvsterious  and  invisible 


^ 


;i ! 


1* 

III  I 


I 


ii 


PTIAMANISM. 


Beiiif^s.  Tho  lust  c*liai)ter  was  dovotoJ  to  Totomism,  and 
we  now  pass  to  what  may  be  most  conveniently  termed 
*  Shamanism.' 


iHi  if 


^.  ill 


SHAMANISM. 

As  Totemism  overlies  Fetichism  so  does  Shamanism 
overlie  Totemism.  The  word  is  derived  from  the  name 
used  in  Siberia,  where  the  *  Shamans  *  work  themselves  up 
into  a  fury,  supposing*  or  pretending  that  in  this  condition 
they  are  inspired  by  the  Spirit  in  whose  name  they  speak, 
and  through  whose  inspiration  they  are  enabled  to  answer 
questions  and  to  foretell  the  future.  In  the  phases  of 
religion  hitherto  considered  (the  deities,  if  indeed  they 
deserve  the  name),  are  regarded  as  visible  to  all,  ai'd 
l)resent  amongst  us.  Shamanism  is  a  considerable  advance, 
inasmuch  as  it  presents  us  with  a  higher  conception  of 
religion.  Although  the  name  is  Siberian,  the  phase  of 
thought  is  widely  distributed,  ,iud  seems  to  be  a  necessary 
stage  in  the  progress  of  religious  development.  Those 
who  are  disj)Osed  to  adopt  the  view  advocated  in  this  work 
will  not  be  surprised  to  find  that  *  Shamanism '  is  no 
definite  system  of  theology.  Wrangel,  however,  regarding 
Shamanism  as  religion  in  the  ordinary  sense,  was  astonished 
at  this  :  '  it  is  remarkable,'  he  says,  *  that  Shamanism  has 
no  dogmas  of  any  kind;  it  is  not  a  system  taught  or 
handed  down  from  one  to  another;  though  it  is  so  widely 
spread,  it  seems  to  originate  with  each  individual  sep- 
arately, an  the  fruit  of  a  highly  excited  imagination,  acted 
upon  by  external  impressions,  which  closely  resemble  each 
other  throughout  the  deserts  of  Northern  Siberia.'' 

It  is  far  from  easy  in  practice  always  to  distinguish 
Shamanism  from  Totemism  on  the  one  hand,  and  Idolatry 

*  Siberia  and  Polar  Sea,  p.  123. 


m,  an<l 
termo'l 


inanisni 

e  naino 

elves  up 

^ncUtioii 

y  spealc, 

)  answer 

liases  of 

3eJ  tliey 

all,  ai"l 

advance, 

option  of 

phase  of 

lecessary 

Those 

this  work 

m '  is  no 

•egardinf^ 

stonished 

.nism  has 

aught  or 

so  widely 

dual  sep- 

.on,  acted 

nble  each 
'I 

Lstinguish 
i  Idolatry 


STRETIIA.      CKEEXLAXD. 


Mm  '  I 


on  the  other.     The  main  dilfcrence  lies  in  the  conception 
of  the  Deity.     In  Totemism  the  deities  inhabit  our  earth, 
in  Shamanism  they  live  generally  in  a  world  of  their  own, 
and  trouble  themselves  little  about  what  is  passing  here. 
The   Shaman  is  occasionally  honoured  by  the   prcsenee 
of  Deity,  or  is   allowed   to   visit   the   heavenly   regions. 
Among  the  Esquimaux  the  *  Angekok  '  answers  precisely 
to  the  Shaman.  Graah  thus  describes  a  scene  in  Greenland. 
The  Angekok  came  in  the  evening,  and,  *  the  lamps  * 
being  extinguished,  and  skins  hung  before  the  windows 
(for  such  arts,  for  evident  reasons,  arc  best  practised  in 
the  dark),  took  his  station  on  the  f  lor,  close  by  a  well- 
dried  seai-skin  there  suspended,  and  commenced  rattling 
it,  beating  the  tambourine  and  singing,  in  which  last  ho 
was  seconded  by  all  present.     From  time  to  time  his  chant 
was  interrupted  by  a  cry  of  "  Goie,  Goie,  Goie,  Goie,  Goie, 
Goie  I "  the  meaning  of  which   I   did   not   comprehend, 
coming  first  from  one  corner  of  the  hut,  and  then  from 
the  other.    Presently  all  was  quiet,  nothing  being  heard 
but  the  angekok  puffing  and  blowing  as  if  struggling  with 
something  superior  to  him  in  strength,  and  then  again  a 
sound  resembling  somewhat  that  of  castanets,  whereupon 
commenced  once  more  the  same  song  as  before,  and  the 
same  cry  of  "  Goie,  Goie,  Goie  ! "     In  this  way  a  whole 
hour  elapsed  before  the  wizard  could  make  the  torngak, 
or  spirit,  obey  his  summons.     Come  he  did,  however,  at 
last,  and  his  approach  was  announced  by  a  strange  rushing 
sound,  very  like  the  sound  of  a  large  bird  flying  beneath 
the  roof.    The  angekok  still  chanting,  now  proposed  his 
questions,  which  were  replied  to  in  a  voice  quite  strange 
to  my  ears,  but  which  seemjd  to  me  to  proceed  from  the 
entrance   passage,  near  which  the   angekok  had  taken 

Oraali's  Voyage  to  Gro.al;incl,  p.  123      Sec  also  Egfdt's  Greenland,  p.  183. 


^ 


I  i 


u 


224 


PACIPTC   ISLANDS. 


his  Btiition.  Thcso  rosponsos,  li(>wovi'r,  wore  Hoiiicwliat 
oracular,  insomuch  tliat  Krnenek's  wives  wero  obli^'(Mlfo 
roqucst  some  more  explicit  juiswer,  whereupon  they  received 
the  comfortable  assurance  that  he  was  alive  and  well,  and 
would  shortly  make  his  appearance.' 

The  account  jifiven  byCrantz  agrees  with  the  above  in  all 
essential  particulars.' 

Williams"  gives  the  following  very  similar  account  of  a 
scene    in    Fiji : — *  Unbroken   silence   follows ;   the   i)riest 
becomes  absorbed  in  thought  and  all  eyes  watch  him  with 
unblinking  steadiness.     In  a  few  minutes  he  trembles ; 
slight  distortions  are  seen  in  his  face,  and  twitching  move- 
ments in  his  limbs.     These  increase  to  a  violent  muscular 
action,  which  spreads  until  the  whole  frame  is  strongly 
convulsed,  and  the  man  shivers  as  with  a  strong  ague  fit. 
In  some  instances  this  is  accompanied  with  murmurs  and 
sobs,  the  veins  are  greatly  enlarged  and  the  circulation  of 
the  blood  quickened.     The  priest  is  now  possessed  by  his 
god,  and  all  his  words  and  actions  are  considered  as  no 
longer  his  own,  but  those  of  the  deity  who  has  entered  into 
him.    Shrill  cries  of  "  Koi  au,  Koi  au!"  "It  is  I,  It  is  I!" 
fill  the  air,  and  the  god  is  supposed  thus  to  notify  his 
approach.     While  giving   the  answer,  the   priest's   eyes 
stand  out  and  roll  as  in  a  frenzy ;  his  voice  is  unnatural, 
has  face  pale,  his  lips  livid,  his  breathing  dei)ressed,  and 
his  entire  appearance  like  that  of  a  furious  madman  ;  the 
sweat   runs   from  every  pore,  and  tears  start   from  his 
strained  eyes  ;  after  which  the  symptoms  gradually  disap- 
pear.     The   priest    looks   round    with   a    vacant    stare, 
and,  as  the  god  says,  "  I  depart,"  announces  his  actual 
departure  by  violently  flinging  himself  down  on  the  mat, 
or  by  suddenly  striking  the  ground  with  his  club,  when 

^  History  of  Grconl.md,  vol.  i.  p.        *  Fiji  ami  the  Fijians,vol.  i.  p.  224. 
210. 


«^**. 


IDOLATUY. 


tamU 


;!!,  ami 


VQ 


ill  all 


mt  of  a 
!   pviost 
Lm  with 
L'lnbk'S  ; 
2  move- 
iiuscular 
stron^'ly 
igue  fit. 
lurs  and 
lation  of 
id  by  Ilia 
)d  as  no 
eved  into 
It  is  I!" 
otify  liis 
it's   eyes 
matural, 
sed,  and 
lan ;  the 
from  his 
ly  disap- 
it    stare, 
is  actual 
the  mat, 
iL,  when 

ol.  i.  p.  224. 


those  at  a  di.stainjc  arc  iiifonut.'d  l>y  blasts  on  the  conch,  or 
the  firing  of  a  musket,  that  the  deity  has  retunicd  into 
the  workl  of  spirits.  Tlio  convulsive  movements  d(.  r.oi, 
entirely  disappear  for  some  time.'  The  process  descriix'd 
by  Dobritzhoifer  '  as  occurring'  amon^'  the  Abipones  is  also 
somewhat  dimihir. 

Amou}^  the  Negroes  of  W.  Africa  Brue '  mentions  a  '  pi'o- 
phet '  *vlio  preten(k'd  *  to  be  inspired  by  the  Deity  in  sucli 
a  manner  as  to  k.uow  the  most  hidden  secrets;  and  p) 
i.nv'slble  wherever  he  pleased,  as  well  a.^  to  make  his  voice 
be  heard  at  the  greatest  distance.  His  disci[)les  and  ac- 
complices attested  the  truth  of  what  he  said  by  a  thousand 
fabulous  relations;  so  that  the  common  people,  always 
credulous  and  fond  of  novelty,  readily  gave  in  to  the  cheat.' 

Colonel  Dalton  states  that  *  the  paganism  of  the  Ho 
and  Muondah  in  all  essential  features  is  shamanislie.'^ 

IDOLATr.T. 

The  wirship  of  Idols  characterises  a  somewhat  higlier 
stage  of  human  development.  "VVe  find  no  traces  of  it 
among  the  lowest  races  of  men ;  and  Lafitau  ^  says  truly, 
'  On  peut  dire  en  general  que  le  grand  nombre  des  peuples 
sauvages  n'a  point  d'idoles.*  The  error  of  regarding 
Idolatry  as  the  general  religion  of  low  races,  has  no  doubt 
mainly  arisen  from  confusing  the  Idol  and  the  Fetid). 
Fetichism,  however,  is  an  attack  on  the  Deity,  Idolatry  is 
an  itct  of  submission  to  him ;  rude,  no  doubt,  but  yet 
humble.  Hence  Fetichism  and  Idolatry  are  not  only 
different,  but  opposite,  so  that  the  one  could  not  be 
developed  directly  out  of  the  other.    We  must  therefore 


'  TTistory  of  the  Abipones,  vol,   ii 
p.  7.'}. 


3  Tranr;.  Etlin.  Soc.  1808,  p.  H'i. 
*  Moeurs  dos  Sauvaycs  Aiiicri  iiina, 
^  Astlcy's  Collection  of  Voyages, vol.     vol.  i.  p.  loj. 
ii.  p.  83. 


1  i 


i 


11 


\^ 


h 


220 


ABSENCE    OF   IDOLATRY 


Itii  !I 


m 


QX])eci  to  find  between  tliem,  as  indeed  we  do,  a  staj^e  of 
religion  without  either  the  one  or  the  other. 

Neither  among  the  Esquimaux  nor  the  Tinne,'  says 
Eichardson,  'did  I  observe  any  image  or  visible  object  of 
worship.' •  Carver  states  that  the  Canadian  Indians  had 
no  idols ;  '^  anc  this  seems  to  have  been  truv  of  the  North 
American  Indians  generally.  Lafitau  mentions  as  an  ex- 
cej)tion  the  existence  of  an  idol  named  Oki  in  Virginia.* 

In  Eastern  Africa  Burton  states  that  he  knows  '  but  one 
people,  the  Wanyika,  who  have  certain  statuettes  called 
Kisukas.'  Nor  do  the  West  African  negroes  worship  idols.^ 
It  is  true  that  some  writers  mention  idols,  but  the  con- 
text almost  always  shows  that  fetiches  are  really  meant. 
In  the  kingdom  of  Whydah  *  Agoye '  was  represented 
nnder  the  form  of  a  deformed  black  man  from  whose  head 
proceed  lizards  and  snakes,^  offering  a  striking  similarity 
to  some  of  the  Indian  idols.  This  is,  however,  an  excep- 
tional case.  Battel  only  mentions  j)articularly  two  idols  ;*"• 
and  Bosnian^  expressly  says  that  *  on  the  Gold  Coast  the 
natives  are  not  in  the  least  acquainted  with  image-worship  ; 
adding,  *  but  at  Ardra  there  are  thousands  of  idols,'  i.e. 
fetiches.  At  Loango  there  was  a  small  black  image  named 
Chikokke,  which  was  placed  in  a  little  house  close  to  the 
port.^  These,  however,  were  merely  fetiches  in  human 
form.  Thus  we  are  told  by  the  same  author  that  in 
Kakongo,  the  kingdom  which  lies  to  the  south  of  Loango, 
the  natives  during  the  plague  '  burnt  their  idols,  saying. 
If  they  IV ill  not  help  us  in  such  a  misfortune  as  this,  when  can 
we  expect  they  should  ?^^  Thus,  apparently,  doubting  not 
so  much  their  power  as  their  will.     Again,  in  Congo,  the 

'  Boat  Journej',  vol.  ii.  p.  44.  pp.  26  and  50. 

«  Travels,  p.  387.  "  Adventures  of  A.  Battel.    Tinkej- 

»  Vol.  i.  p.  108.  on,  vol.  xvi.  p.  331. 

*  Astlev's    Collection    of  Voytipos,       *  Bosnian's     Guinea.       Piukfrfon, 
vol.  ii.  p.  2 10  for  Futa,  and  for  Guinea  oc.  cit.  p.  403. 

us  far  as  Ardrah.  p.  6G6.  *  Astley,  loc.  cit.  p.  216. 

*  Astley'a    Collection    of    Vnvnjres.  ^  Astley, /<ir'.  r?7.  p.  217. 


af^e  of 

,'   says 

)ject  of 

ms  bad 

3  Nortli 

3  an  ex- 

jinia.^ 
but  one 

;s  called 

ip  idols.'* 

the  con- 

y  meant. 

Dresented 

lose  head 

similarity 

an  excep- 

vo  idols  f 
Coast  the 
■worship ; 
idols/  i.e. 
Lo-e  named 
Lose  to  the 
in  human 
,r  that  in 
.f  Loango, 
>ls,  saying, 
ij  when  can 
ibting  not 
Ion  go,  the 

IvUel.   rinke^;- 

ll6. 
17. 


AMONG   THE    LOWEK  RACES. 


227 


so-called  idols  are  placed  in  fields  to  protect  the  growing 
crops.'  This  is  clearly  the  function  of  a  fetich,  not  of  a 
true  idol. 

Idolatry,  says  Williams  of  the  Fijian,  '  he  seems  never 
to  have  known;  for  he  makes  no  attempt  to  fashion 
material  representations  of  his  gods.'^  As  regards  the 
New  Zealanders,  Yate'  says,  that  *  though  remarkably 
superstitious,  they  have  no  gods  that  they  worship ;  nor 
have  they  anything  to  represent  a  being  which  they  call 
God.'  Diefi'enbach  also  observes  that  in  New  Zealand 
'  there  is  no  worship  of  idols,  or  of  bodily  representations 
of  the  Atoua.'  "* 

Speaking  of  the  Singe  Dyaks,"*  Sir  James  Brooke  says, 
Religion  they  have  none ;  and  although  they  know  the 
name  for  a  god'  (which  is  probably  taken  from  the  Hindoos), 
'  they  have  no  priests  nor  idols,  say  no  prayers,  offer  no 
offerings.'  He  subsequently  modified  this  opinion  on  some 
points,  but  as  regards  the  absence  of  idols  it  seems  to  be 
correct. 

The  Kols  of  Central  India  worship  the  sun,  *  material 
idol  worship  they  have  none.'^  Originally,  says  Dubois, 
the  Hindoos  did  not  resort  '  to  images  of  stone  or  other 
materials.  .  .  .  but  when  the  people  of  India  had  deified 
their  heroes  or  other  mortals,  they  began  then,  and  not 
before,  to  have  recourse  to  statues  and  images.'  ^  In  China 
'it  is  observable'  that  there  is  not  to  be  found,  in  the 
canonical  books,  the  least  footstep  of  idolatrous  worship 
till  the  image  of  Fo  was  brought  into  China,  several  ages, 
after  Confucius.' 

The    Ostyaks    never    made    an   image    of    their   god 


^  Astloy,  loc.  cit.  vol.  iii.  p.  229. 
'  Fiji  iincl  the  Fijians,  vol.  i.  p.  216. 
■  Loc.  cit.  p.  141. 

*  Loc.  cit.  vol.  ii.  p.  118. 

•  Kcppol's    Expedition   to   Borneo, 


vol.  i.  p.  231. 

«  Diilton,  Trans.  Ethn.  Soc,  N.  S,, 
vol.  vi.  p.  32. 

"  Dubois, TlioPonplcof  India, p.  370 

»  Astlcy,  vol.  iv.  p.  203. 


I 
li 


i    *   ! 


I  Ml: 


w 


III 


1 

; 

r 

' 

ri ' 

'■   1 

1  ft' 

'fl' 

,|     '  li 

2' 

k  1 

ORIGIN   OF   IDOLATRY. 


>    », 


*  Toruim.''  In  fact,  idols  do  not  occur  until  wo  arrive  at 
the  stage  of  the  highest  Polynesian  Islanders.  Even  then 
they  are  often,  as  Ellis  expressly  tells  us,'^  mere  shapeless 
i:)ieces  of  wood ;  thus  leaving  much  to  the  imagination.  It 
may,  I  think,  be  laid  down  almost  as  a  constant  rule,  that 
mankind  arrives  at  the  stage  of  monarchy  in  government 
l)efore  he  reaches  idolatry  in  religion. 

The  idol  usually  assumes  the  human  form,  and  idolatry 
is  closf'ly  connected  with  that  form  of  religion  which 
consi:-,ts  in  the  worship  of  ancestors.  We  have  already 
seen  how  imperfectly  uncivilised  man  realise  s  the  concep- 
tion of  death ;  and  we  cannot  wonder  that  death  and  sleep 
should  long  have  been  intimately  connejted  together  in 
the  human  mind.  The  sa-vage,  iiowever,  knows  well  that 
in  sleej)  the  spirit  lives,  even  though  the  body  appears  to 
be  dead.  Morning  after  morning  he  rouses  himself,  and 
sees  others  rise,  from  sleep.  Naturally  therefore  he 
endeavours  to  rouse  the  dead.  Nor  can  we  wonder  at  the 
very  general  custom  of  providing  food  and  other  necessaries 
for  the  use  of  the  dead.  Among  races  leading  a  settled 
and  quiet  life  this  habit  would  tend  to  continue  longer 
and  longer.  Prayers  to  the  dead  would  reasonably  follow 
from  such  customs,  for  even  without  attributing  a  greater 
power  to  the  dead  than  to  the  living,  they  might  yet,  from 
their  different  sphere  and  nature,  exercise  a  considerable 
power  whether  for  good  or  evil.  But  it  is  impossible  to 
distinguish  a  request  to  an  invisible  being  from  prayer ; 
or  a  powerful  spirit  from  a  demi-god. 

The  nations  of  Mysore  at  the  new  moon  '  observe  a  feast 
in  honour  of  deceased  parents.'^  The  Kurumbars  of  the 
Deccan  also  '  sacrifice  to  the  spirits  of  ancestors,'  and  the 

'  Erman,  loc.  dt.  vol.  ii.  p.  TjO.  '  Buchannn,  quoted  in  Trans.  Ethn. 

'  Polynesian   lluscarchos',  vol.  ii.  p.    Soc,  N.S.,  vol.  viii.  p.  96. 
220. 


ve  at 
.  tlien 
pelcsB 
n.  It 
»,  tliat 
iimeiit 

lolatry 

■wliich 

ilready 

jonccp- 

id  sleep 

tlier  ill 

sll  that 

pears  to 

jelf,  and 

ifore  lie 

r  at  tlic 

pessaries 
settled 
longer 
y  follow 
greater 

et,  from 
iderable 
ssible  to 
prayer ; 

re  a  feast 

Irs  of  tlie 

and  tlie 

'vans.  Ethn. 


ORIGIN   OF    IDOLATRY, 


229 


game  is  the  ease  with  the  Santals.'  Indeed,  the  worship 
of  ancestors  appears  to  be  more  or  less  prevalent  among 
all  the  aboriginal  tribes  of  Central  India. 

Burton'  considers  that  some  of  the  Egba  deities  arc 
'  palpably  men  and  women  of  note  in  their  day.' 

The  KaflBrs  also  sacrifice  and  pray  to  their  deceased 
relatives,  although  *  it  would  perhaps  be  asserting  too 
much  to  say  absolutely  that  they  believe  in  the  existence 
and  the  immortality  of  the  soul.''  In  fact,  their  belief 
seems  to  go  no  further  than  this,  that  the  ghosts  of  the 
dead  haunt  for  a  certain  time  their  previous  dwelling- 
places,  and  either  assist  or  j)lague  the  living.  No  special 
powers  are  attributed  to  them,  and  it  would  be  a  misnomer 
to  call  them  '  Deities.' 

Other  races  endeavour  to  preserve  the  memory  of  the 
dead  by  rude  statues.  Thu^  Pallas*  mentions  that  the 
Ostyaks  of  Siberia  *  rendent  aussi  un  culte  a  leurs  morts.  lis 
sculjitent  des  figures  de  bois  pour  representor  les  Ostiaks 
celebres.  Dans  les  repas  de  commemoration  on  place 
devant  ces  figures  une  partie  des  mets.  Les  femmes  qui 
ont  cheri  leurs  maris  ont  de  pareilles  figures,  les  couchent 
avec  elles,  les  parent,  et  ne  mangent  point  sans  leur  pre- 
senter une  partie  de  leur  portion.'  Erman*  also  mentions 
that  vdien  a  man  dies  *  the  relatives  form  a  rude  wooden 
image  representing,  and  in  honour  of,  the  deceased,  which 
is  set  up  in  their  yurt,  and  receives  divine  honours '  for  a 
certain  time.  *  At  every  meal  they  set  an  offering  of  food 
before  the  image ;  and  should  this  represent  a  deceased 
husband,  the  widow  embraces  it  from  time  to  time  and 
lavishes  on  it  every  sign  of  attachront.'     In   ordinary 


^  Elliott,  Trans.  Ethn.  Soc,  l^.S.,  also  Callaway's  Edigious  System   ol 

vol.  viii.  pp.  104,  lOG.  tho  Atnaziihi. 

^  ALbookuta,  rol.  i.  p.  191.  *  Pallas'  Voyages,  vol.  iv.  p.  79. 

'  Tho  liasiitos;  Casalis,  p.  213.  See         '  Ermau,  loc.  cit.  vol.  ii.  p.  61. 


1 

1 

MM 

1    <      .. 


i       i 


i  ^t  H 


h* 


230 


ORIGIN    OF    IDOLATRY. 


cases  this  semi-Tvorsliip  only  lasts  a  few  years,  after  wliich 
the  image  is  buried.  *  But  when  a  Shaman  dies,  this  custom 
changes,  in  h  is  favour,  into  a  complete  and  decided  canon- 
isation ;  for  it  is  not  thought  enough  that,  in  this  case, 
the  dressed  block  of  wood  which  represents  the  deceased 
should  receive  homage  for  a  limited  period,  but  the  priest's 
descendants  do  their  best  to  keep  him  in  vogue  from 
generation  to  generation;  and  by  well-contrived  oracles 
and  other  arts,  they  manage  to  procure  offerings  for  these 
their  families'  penates,  as  abundant  as  those  laid  on  the 
altars  of  the  universally  acknowledged  gods.  But  that 
these  latter  also  have  an  historical  origin,  that  they  were 
originally  monuments  of  distinguished  men,  to  wliich 
prescription  and  the  interest  of  the  Shamans  gave  by 
degrees  an  arbitrary  meaning  and  importance,  seems  to 
me  not  liable  to  doubt ;  and  this  is,  furthermore,  corro^ 
borated  by  the  circumstance  that  of  all  the  sacred  yurts 
dedicated  to  these  saints,  which  have  been  numerous  from 
the  earliest  times  in  the  vicinity  of  the  river,  only  one  has 
been  seen  (near  Samarovo)  containing  the  image  of  a 
woman.' 

It  seems  to  ine  that  in  other  countries  also,  statues  have 
in  this  manner  come  to  be  worshipped  as  Deities. 

Solomon,^  long  ago,  observed  truly  of  idols  that 

*  13.  Neither  were  they  from  the  beginning,  neither  shall 
they  be  for  ever. 

*  14.  For  by  the  vain  glory  of  men  they  entered  into  the 
world,  and  therefore  shall  they  come  shortly  to  an  end. 

'15.  For  a  father  afflicted  with  untimely  mourning, 
when  he  hath  made  an  image  of  his  child  soon  taken 
away,  now  honoured  him  as  a  god,  which  was  then 
a  dead  man,  and  delivered  to  those  that  were  under  hini 
ceremonies  and  sacrifices. 

'  Wisdom,  ch.  xiv.  p.  12. 


1 


IDOLS    NOT   MERE    EMBLEMS. 


231 


*  IG.  Tims,  in  process  of  time,  an  ungodly  ciistoni  grown 
strong  was  kept  as  a  law,  and  graven  images  were  wor- 
shipped by  the  commandments  of  kings  : 

'  17.  Whom  men  could  not  honour  in  presence,  because 
they  dwelt  far  off,  they  took  the  counterfeit  of  the  visage 
from  far,  and  made  an  express  image  of  a  king  whom  they 
honoured,  to  the  end  that  by  this  their  forwardness,  they 
might  flatter  him  that  was  absent,  as  if  he  were  present. 

*  18.  Also  the  singular  diligence  of  the  artificer  did  helj) 
to  set  forward  the  ignorant  to  more  superstition. 

'19.  For  he,  peradventure  willing  to  please  one  in 
authority,  forced  ill  his  skill  to  make  the  resemblance  of 
the  best  fashion. 

*  20.  And  so  the  multitude,  allured  by  the  grace  of  the 
work,  took  him  now  for  a  god,  which  a  little  before  was 
but  honoured  as  a  man.' 

The  idol  is  by  no  means  regarded  as  a  mere  emblem. 
In  India,*  when  the  ofterings  of  the  people  have  been  less 
profuse  than  usual,  the  Brahmans  sometimes  *  put  the 
idols  in  irons,  chaining  their  hands  and  feet.  They  ex- 
hibit them  to  the  people  in  this  humiliating  state,  into 
which  they  tell  them  they  have  been  brought  by  rigorous 
creditors,  from  whom  their  gods  had  been  obliged,  in 
times  of  trouble,  to  borrow  money  to  supply  their  wants. 
They  declare  that  the  inexorable  creditors  refuse  to  set 
the  god  at  liberty,  until  the  whole  sum,  with  interest,  shall 
have  been  paid.  The  people  come  forward,  alarmed  at  the 
sight  of  their  divinity  in  irons  ;  and  thinking  it  the  most 
meritorious  of  all  good  works  to  contribute  to  his  deliver- 
ance, they  raise  the  sum  required  by  the  Brahmans  for 
that  purpose.' 

*  A  statue  of  Hercules'*  Was  worshipped  at  Tyre,  not  as  a 


,t  I 


i-i  i 


,1  i 


1 


407. 


Dubois,  The  People  of  India,  p.         ^  History  of  Man,  vol.  iv.  p.  316. 


i  I « 


!  ifi 


I 


232 


WORSniP   OF   ANCESTORS. 


.     *^    il 


I;.!.    ' 


liiii:;; 


represcntjitivc  of  tlie  Deity  but  as  the  Deitj^  himself;  and 
accordingly  when  Tyre  was  besieged  by  Alexander,  the 
Deity  was  fast  bound  in  chains,  to  prevent  him  from 
deserting  to  the  enemy.' 

It  is  hard  for  ns  to  ai^preciate  the  difficulty  -which  an 
undeveloped  mind  finds  in  raising  itself  to  any  elevated 
conception.  Thus  Campbell  mentions  that  a  Highlander 
wishing  to  describe  a  castle  of  the  utmost  possible  mag- 
nificence, ended  with,  this  climax  :  *  That  was  the  beautiful 
castle  !  There  was  not  a  shadow  of  a  thing  that  was 
for  the  use  of  a  castle  that  w^as  not  in  it,  even  to  a  herd 
for  the  geese.'  As,  however,  civilisation  progresses,  and 
the  chiefs,  becoming  more  despotic,  exact  more  and  more 
respect,  the  people  are  introduced  to  conceptions  of  power 
and  magnificence  higher  than  any  which  they  had  pre- 
viously entertained.  In  many  of  the  cases  above  quoted 
the  religion  is  merely  in  the  stage  of  Totemism,  but  as 
men  advanced  in  civilisation  they  became  more  and  more 
impressed  by  the  mystery  of  existence,  and  gradually 
acquired  more  elevated  conceptions  of  Deity. 

Hence,  though  the  worship  of  ancestors  occurs  among 
races  in  the  stage  of  Totemism,  it  long  survives,  and  may 
be  regarded  as  characterising  Idolatry,  which  is  really  a 
higher  religion ;  and  generally,  though  not  always,  indicates 
a  higher  mental  condition  than  the  worship  of  animals  or 
even  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  At  first  sight  the  reverse 
would  appear  to  be  the  '^ase  :  most  would  regard  Mie  sun 
as  a  far  grander  deity  than  any  in  human  form.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  however,  this  is  not  so,  and  sun-worship  is 
generally,  though  not  invariably,  associated  with  a  lower 
idea  of  the  Deity  than  is  the  case  with  Idolatry.  This 
arises  partly  from  the  fact  that  the  gradually  increasing 
power  of  chiefs  and  kings  has  familiarised  the  mind  with 
the  existence  of  a  power  greater  than  any  which  had  been 


f;  and 
;r,  tlio 
I  from 

icli  an 
Icvated 
ilarider 
3  ma^- 
jautiful 
at  was 
a  herd 
es,  and 
id  more 
f  powor 
lad  pre- 
I  qnoted 
,  but  as 
id  more 
■adna^ly 

among 
,nd  may 
really  a 
iidicates 
mals  or 
reverse 
Mie  sun 
.     As  a 
)rsliip  is 
a  lower 
,     This 
creasing 
Lud  with 
ad  been 


WORSHIP   OF    MEN. 


2;l:J 


n 


previously  conceived.  Thus  in  Western  Africa,  the  slave 
trade  having  added  considerably  to  the  wealth  and  conse- 
quently to  the  power  of  the  chiefs  or  kings,  they  maintained 
much  state,  and  insisted  upon  being  treated  with  servile 
homage.  No  man  was  allowed  to  eat  with  them,  nor  to 
approach  them  excepting  on  his  knees  with  an  appear- 
ance of  fear,  which  no  doubt  was  in  many  cases  suffi- 
ciently well-founded. 

These  marks  of  respect  so  much  resembled  adoration, 
that  '  the  individuals'  of  the  lower  classes  are  persuaded 
that  his  (the  king's)  power  is  not  confined  to  the  earth, 
and  that  he  has  credit  enough  to  make  rain  fall  from 
heaven :  hence  they  fail  not,  when  a  continuance  of 
drought  makes  them  fearful  about  the  harvest,  to  re- 
present to  him  that  if  he  does  not  take  care  to  water  the 
lands  of  his  kingdom,  they  will  die  of  hunger,  and  will 
find  it  impossible  to  make  him  the  usual  presents.' 

Battel  also  mentions  that  the  king  of  ijoango  '  is 
honoured  among  them  as  though  he  were  a  god ;  and  is 
called  Sambee  and  Pango,  which  means  God.  They  believe 
he  can  let  them  have  rain  when  he  likes.'  ^  lie  is  so  holy 
that  no  one  is  allowed  to  see  him  eat  or  drink.  The 
tyrants  of  Natal,  says  Casalis,  *  exacted  almost  divine 
homage.'^ 

The  king  and  queen  of  Tahiti  were  regarded  as  so  sacred 
that  nothing  once  used  by  them,  not  even  the  sounds 
forming  their  names,  could  be  used  for  any  ordinary  pur- 
pose.* The  language  of  the  court  was  characterised  by 
the  most  ridiculous  adulation.  The  king's  *  houses  were 
called  the  aarai,  the  clouds  of  heaven ;  anuanua,  the  rain- 


'  Proyart's  History  of  Loango,  Pin- 
kerton,  vol.  xvi.  p.  677.  See  also  Bos- 
man,  ^e.  ciV.  pp.  488,  491.  Astley's 
Collection  of  Voynges,  vol.  ill.  pp.  70, 
223,  226. 


^  Pinkcrton's  Travels,  vol.  xvi.  p. 
330. 

s  The  Easutos,  p.  219. 

*  Ellis'  Polynesian  Iiesearches,  vol 
ii.  pp.  348,  360. 


1  A 


Id  1 


i-  '  ! 


i  \ 


rt--^ 


2fJi 


■VN'OTISIIIP    OF   MEN. 


bow  was  the  name  of  the  canoe  in  which  he  voyaj^od ;  his 
voice  was  called  thunder ;  the  glare  of  the  torches  in  his 
dwellir  ^  was  denominated  lightninf^ ;  and  when  the  i^eoplo 
saw  them  in  the  evening,  as  they  passed  near  his  abode, 
instead  of  saying  the  torches  were  burning  in  the  palace, 
they  would  observe  that  the  lightning  was  flashing  in  the 
clouds  of  heaven.' 

Man-wrrship  would  not,  indeed,  be  long  confined  to  the 
dei  !-  .:  ix  many  cases  it  extends  to  the  living  also. 
Indc-  «'  *  savage  who  worships  an  animal  or  a  tree,  would 
see  no  absu  "'ty  in  worshipping  a  man.  His  chief  is,  in 
his  ej'-es,  almost  as  powerful,  if  not  more  so,  than  his 
Deity.  Yet  man-worship  does  not  prevail  in  altogether 
uncivilised  communities,  because  the  chiefs,  associating 
const-^ntly  with  their  followers,  lack  that  mystery  which 
religion  requvres,  and  which  nocturnal  animals  so  emi- 
nently possess.  As,  however,  civilisation  progresses,  and 
the  chiefs  separate  themselves  more  and  more  from  their 
subjects,  this  ceases  to  be  the  case  and  man- worship 
becomes  an  important  element  of  religion. 

The  worship  of  a  great  chief  seems  quite  as  natural  as 
that  of  an  idol.  *  Why,'  said  a  Mongol'  to  Friar  Ascelin, 
*  since  you  Christians  make  no  scruple  to  adore  sticks  and 
stones,  why  do  you  refuse  to  do  the  same  honour  to  Baj'oth 
Noy,  whom  the  Khan  hath  ordered  to  be  adored  in  the 
same  manner  as  he  is  himself  ? '  This  worship  is,  however, 
almost  always  accompanied  by  a  belief  in  higher  beings. 
We  have  already  seen  that  the  New  Zealanders  and  some 
other  nations  have  entirely  abandoned  the  worship  of 
animals,  &c.,  without  as  yet  realising  the  higher  stage  of 
Idolatry,  owing  probably  in  great  measure  to  their  political 
condition.     In  other  cases  where  Shamanism  has  not  so 


'  Aetlcy,  vol.  iv.  p.  551. 


I;  Ins 
in  Ilia 
peoplo 
abode, 
[jiilace, 
in  the 

to  the 

nr    also. 

,  wouid 
f  is,  in 
lan  his 
ogether 
Dciating 
J  which 
so  emi- 
ses,  and 
m  their 
•worship 

itural  as 
Ascelin, 
icks  and 
0  Bayoth 
d  in  the 
however, 
r  beings, 
md  some 
)rship   of 
stage  of 
•  political 
IS  not  so 


ASIA.      PACIFIC    ISLANDS.      AFRICA. 


2:15 


efTcctually  replaced  Toteinism,  the  cstablislnnent  of  nioii- 
archical  government  with  its  usual  pomp  and  ceremonial, 
led  to  a  much  more  organised  worship  of  the  old  gods. 
Of  this  the  serpent-worship  in  Western  Africa,  and  t!  e 
sun-worship  in  Peru,  are  striking  examples. 

I  do  not  therefore  wonder  that  white  men  should  L  '^e 
been  so  often  taken  for  deities.  This  was  the  case  with 
Captain  Cook  in  the  Pacific,  with  Lander  in  Western 
Africa,  aiid,  as  already  mentioned,  Mrs.  Thomson  v/as 
regarded  by  the  North  Australians  as  a  spirit,  though 
she  lived  with  them  for  some  years. 

*  Tuikilakila,*  the  chief  of  Somo^'^mo,  offered  Mr.  Hunt 
a  preferment  of  the  same  sort.  "  i.  y<  die  first,"  said  he, 
"I  shall  make  you  my  god."  In  'ct  ..ere  appears  to  be 
no  certain  line  of  demarcation  b.^e^n  departed  spirits  and 
gods,  nor  between  gods  and  living  men,  fyr  many  of  the 
priests  and  old  chiefs  are  consiv  ^^u.  as  sacred  persons,  and 
not  a  few  of  them  will  also  claim  to  themselves  the  right 
of  divinity.  "  I  am  a  god,"  Tuikilakila  would  sometimes 
say ;  and  he  believed  it  too.  They  were  not  merely  the 
words  of  his  lips  ;  he  believed  he  was  something  above  a 
mere  man.' 

It  seems  at  first  sight  hard  to  understand  how  men  can 
be  regarded  immortal.  Yet  even  this  belief  has  been 
entertained  in  various  countries. 

MeroUa  tells  us*  that  in  his  time  the  wizards  of  Congo 
were  called  Scinghili,  that  is  to  say  Gods  of  the  Earth. 
The  head  of  them  is  styled  *  Ganga  Chitorne,  being  reputed 
God  of  all  the  Earth.'  *  He  further  asserts  that  his  body 
is  not  capable  of  suffering  a  natural  death ;  and,  therefore, 
to  confirm  his  adorers  in  that  opinion,  whenever  he  finds 
his  end  approaching,  either  through  age  or  disease,  he  calls 


'  Erskine's  Western  Pacific,  p.  246. 


*  Pinkerton,  vol.  xvi,  p.  22G,  et  seq. 


i! 


t^J 


^ 


M 


2-^0 


THE    GREAT    LAMA. 


ibr  sucli  a  one  of  his  disciples  as  lie  designs  to  succeed 
iuin,  and  pretends  to  communicate  to  him  liis  great  powers  : 
and  afterwards  in  public  (where  this  traj^'edy  is  always 
acted)  he  commands  him  to  tie  a  halter  about  his  neck 
and  to  stran^jle  him  therewith,  or  else  to  take  a  club,  and 
knock  him  down  dead.  This  command  bein*:^  once  pro- 
nounced, is  soon  executed,  and  the  wizard  thereby  sent  a 
martjT  to  the  devil.  The  reason  that  this  is  done  in  public, 
is  to  make  known  the  successor  ordained  by  the  last  breath 
of  the  predecessor,  and  to  show^  that  it  has  the  same  power 
of  producing  rain,  and  the  like.  If  this  office  were  not 
thus  continually  filled,  the  inhabitants  say  that  the  earth 
would  soon  become  barren,  and  mankind  consequently 
perish.  In  my  time,  one  of  these  magicians  was  cast  into 
the  sea,  another  into  a  river,  a  mother  and  her  son  put  to 
death,  and  many  others  banished  by  our  order,  as  has 
been  said.' 

So  also  the  Great  Lama  of  Thibet  is  regarded  as  im- 
mortal; though  his  spirit  occasionally  passes  from  one 
earthly  tenement  to  another. 

These,  then,  are  the  lowest  intellectual  stages  through 
which  religion  has  passed.  It  is  no  j)art  of  my  plan  to  des- 
cribe the  various  religious  beliefs  of  the  higher  races.  I  have, 
however,  stopped  short  sooner  perhaps  than  I  should  other- 
wise have  done,  because  the  worship  of  personified  prin- 
ciples, such  as  Fear,  Love,  Hope,  &c.,  could  not  have  been 
treated  apart  from  that  of  the  Phallus  or  Lin  gam  with 
which  it  was  so  intimately  associated  in  Greece,  India, 
Mexico,  and  elsewhere ;  and  which,  though  at  first  modest 
and  pure,  as  all  religions  are  in  their  origin,  led  to  such 
abominable  practices,  that  it  is  one  of  the  most  painful 
chapters  in  human  history. 

I  will  now  therefore  pass  on  to  some  points  intimatel} 


M 


TIIH    \V0IISI!!P    OP    rniXCIPLES. 


2:;7 


connet'iiHl  ^vitll  relij,'ioii,  but  which  couM  not  be  cuuvo- 
nioiitly  treiLtcMl  in  the  oarlitr  part  of  tJiis  work. 

There  is  no  ditriculty  in  understanding  tliat  when  once 
the  idea  of  Spiritual  lieinj^'s  had  become  habitual — when 
once  man  had  come  to  rey-ard  them  as  exercisin<'  an  im- 
portant  influence,  whether  for  good  or  evil — he  would 
endeavour  to  secure  their  assistance  and  support.  Before 
a  war  he  would  try  to  jn-opitiate  them  by  promising  a 
share  of  the  spoil  after  victory  ;  and  fear,  even  if  no  higher 
motive,  would  ensure  the  performance  of  his  promise. 

We,  no  doubt,  regard,  and  justly  regard,  sacrifices  as 
unnecessary.  *I  will  take  no  bullock,'  says  David,'  *  out  of 
thine  house,  nor  he-goat  out  of  thy  folds.'  This  sentiment, 
however,  was  ftir  in  advance  of  its  time,  Tt-id  even  Solomon 
felt  that  sacrifices,  in  +lie  then  condition  of  the  Jews,  were 
necessary.  They  are,  indeed,  a  stage  through  which,  in 
any  natural  process  of  development,  religion  must  pass. 
At  first  it  is  supposed  that  the  Si)irits  actually  eat  the  food 
offered  to  them.  Soon,  however,  it  would  be  observed 
that  animals  sacrificed  did  not  disappear  ;  and  the  natural 
exi^lanation  would  be  that  the  Spirit  ate  the  spiritual  part 
of  the  victim,  leaving  the  grosser  i^ortion  to  his  devout 
worshipper.  Thus  the  Limboos  near  Darjeeling  eat  their 
sacrifices,  dedicating,  as  they  forcibly  express  it,  *  the  life- 
breath,  to  the  gods,  the  flesh  to  ourselves. '^ 

So  also,  as  Sir  G.  Grey  tells  us,  the  New  Zealand  fairies, 
when  Te  Kanawa  gave  them  his  jewels,  carried  off  the 
shadows  only,  not  caring  for  the  earthly  substance.^  In 
Guinea,  according  to  Bosman,  '  the  idol  hath  only  the 
blood,  because  they  like  the  flesh  very  well  themselves.''* 


;i 


'  Psnlm  1.  *  Hosman.      Pinkorton'.'j    Voyjigop, 

*  Campbell,  in   Trans.  Ethn.  Soc,  vol.  xvi.  p.  o31.    Astl-y's  Collectiun  of 

N.S.,  vol.  vii.  p.  153.  Voyages,  vol.  ii.  p.  97. 
^  Polynesian  Mythology,  p.  29 1. 


l'% 


238 


SACUIFICES. 


!'!'■    ■  >: 


»:■  ■ 


'111 


In  other  caKOs  the  idols  were  smeared  with  the  bltiod,  while 
the  devotees  feasted  on  the  flesh.  The  Ostyaks  when  they 
kill  an  animal  rub  some  of  the  blood  on  the  mouths  of  tlieir 
idols.  Even  this  seems  at  lenjjth  to  bo  replaced  in  somo 
cases,  as  Mr.  Tylor  has  suggested,  by  red  paint.  Thus  the 
sacred  stones  in  India,  as  Colonel  Forbes  Leslie  has  shown, 
are  frequently  ornamented  with  red.*  So  also  in  Congo  it 
is  customary  to  daub  the  fetiches  with  red  every  new 
moon.''  Atkinson'  thus  describes  a  Kirghiz  sacrifice  : — 'A 
ram  was  led  up  by  the  owner,  who  wished  for  a  largo 
increase  of  his  flocks  and  herds.  It  was  handed  to  an 
assistant  of  the  priest,  who  killed  it  in  the  usual  manner. 
His  superior  stood  near,  looking  towards  the  east,  and 
began  chanting  a  prayer,  and  beating  on  his  large  tam- 
bourine to  rou  e  up  his  god,  and  then  made  his  request 
for  multitudes  of  sheep  and  cattle.  The  ram  was  being 
flayed ;  and  when  the  operation  was  completed,  the  skin 
was  put  on  a  pole  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  sketch, 
raised  above  the  framework,  and  placed  with  its  head 
towards  the  east.  The  tambourine  thundered  forth  its 
sound,  and  the  performer  continued  his  wild  chant.  The 
flesh  was  cooked  in  the  large  cauldron,  and  the  tribe  held 
a  great  festival.* 

Of  the  great  offerings  of  food  among  the  Fijians,  says 
Williams,*  'native  belief  apportions  merely  the  soul 
thereof  to  the  gods,  who  are  described  as  being  enormous 
eaters  ;  the  substance  is  consumed  by  the  worshippers.* 

Ellis  •'  mentions  an  indication  of  this  in  Tahiti,  when 
human  sacrifices  prevailed  but  cannibalism  was  abandoned. 
The  priest  handed  a  portion  of  the  victim  to  the  king, 


•  See,  for  instance,  Early  Kaces  of        *  Fiji  and  the  Fijians,  vol.  i.  p.  231. 
Scotland,  vol.  ii.  p,  464.  See  also  p.  223. 

2  See  mit^,  p.  208.  *  Polynesian  Eesearclies,  vol,  ii.  p. 

•  Siberia,  p.  383.  214. 


CONPUHION    OF    TUK    VICTIM    WITH    TIIK    DKITY. 


2:{0 


4M 


I,  while 
>n  tli<.!y 
Df  their 
.11  some 
hus  tho 
shown, 
longo  it 
ry  now 
;e : — *A 
a  largo 
d  to  an 
manner. 
Lst,  and 
rjo  tarn- 
request 
IS  being 
the  skin 
;  sketch, 
ts   head 
:orth  its 
it.     The 
ibe  held 

ms,  says 
he  sonl 
normous 
)pers.' 
ti,  when 
mdoned. 
he  king, 

3l.  i.  p.  231. 
s,  vol.  ii.  p. 


*  who  raised  it  to  his  mouth  ns  if  desirous  to  oat  it,'  but 
then  handed  it  to  an  attendant. 

In  many  cases,  indeed,  it  seems  to  be  a  necessary  portion 
of  the  ceremony  that  the  victim  should  bo  oaten  by  those 
ju'esent.  Thus,  in  India,'  when  the  sacrifice  *  is  over,  tho 
priest  comes  out,  and  distributes  pj.rt  of  the  articles  which 
had  been  offered  to  the  idols.  This  is  loceived  as  holy, 
and  is  eaten  inimediatolv.' 

Among  the  Redskins,'*  at  tho  feast  held  when  the  hunt  ing 
season  begins,  the  victim  *  must  be  all  eaten  and  nothing 
left.'  It  is  remarkable  that  among  the  Algonkins,  another 
rule  at  the  Si^me  feast  is  that  not  a  Ixjne  of  the  victiiri 
must  be  broken.' 

In  many  cases  a  curious  confusion  arises  between  the 
victim  and  the  Deity,  and  the  former  is  worshipped  before 
it  is  sacrificed  and  eaten.  Thus  in  ancient  Egypt,  Apis 
the  victim  was  also  regarded  as  the  God,*  and  Iphigenia 
was  supposed  by  some  to  be  the  same  as  Artemis.* 

In  Mexico'"'  at  a  certain  period  of  the  year  the  priest  of 
Quetzalcoatl  made  an  image  of  the  Deity  of  meal  mixed 
with  infants'  blood,  and  then,  after  many  impressive  cere- 
monies, killed  tho  image  by  shooting  it  with  an  arrow,  and 
tore  out  the  heart,  which  was  eaten  by  the  king,  while  the 
rest  of  the  body  was  distributed  among  the  people,  every 
one  of  whom  waji  most  anxious  to  procure  a  i)iece  to  eat, 
however  small.^ 


'  Dubois,  Tho  people  of  India,  p. 
401. 

2  Schoolcraft's  Indian  Tribes,  vol. 
iii.  p.  61.  Tanner's  Narrative,  p. 
2H7. 

*  Tanner's  Narrative,  p.  195. 

*  Cox's  Manual  of  Mythology,  p. 
213. 

»  Ibid.,  p.  158. 

*  See  Miiller,  Gcs.  d.  Amer.  Urr. 
p.  6')5. 


"  Die  Priestor  Tcrfortigen  niimlich 
sein  B'ld  von  allorlei  Samen,  die  mit 
dem  Bluto  geopfertcr  Kinder  zusam- 
niengobacken  wurdrn.  Mancherlei 
religiose  Reinigungen  und  Siihnungen, 
Waschungen  mit  Wasser,  Adcrlassen, 
Fasten,  ProzoMsionon,  Riiucherungen, 
WaehtclopfT,  Menschonopic  bereite- 
ten  zxir  Fcif r  vor.  AlsdaEn  sihoss  ein 
Priester  Qnctzalcoatls  oin^'a  Pfeil 
gegen  j«MC3  Bild  Huiuiloporiitlis,  und 


ii 


} 

( 

■i 

!  ] 

' 

> 

■'l 

1 

■1^ 

i 

^i 

\4\ 

i 

■w 

& 

I 


.    '? 


210 


HUMAN  SAcrariciis. 


TliG  groat  3'carly  sacrifice  in  lionour  of  Tezcatlipoc  "  was 
also  veiy  roinarkablc.  Some  beautiful  youth,  usually  a 
war  captive,  was  clioson  as  the  victim.  For  a  whole  year 
he  was  treated  and  worshipped  as  a  god.  When  he  went 
out  he  was  attended  by  a  numerous  trr  in  of  pages,  and 
the  crowd  as  he  passed  ];)rostrated  themselves  before  him, 
and  did  him  homage  as  the  impersonation  of  the  good 
Deity.  Everything  he  could  wish  was  provided  for  him,  and 
at  the  commencement  of  the  last  month,  four  beautiful  girls 
were  allotted  to  him  as  wives.  Finally,  when  the  fatal  day 
arrived,  ho  was  placed  at  the  head  of  a  solemn  procession, 
taken  to  the  temple,  and  after  being  sacrificed  with  much 
ceremony  and  every  token  of  respect,  he  was  eaten  l)y 
the  i)riests  and  chiefs. 

Again,  among  the  Khonds^  of  Central  India  human 
sacrifices  prevailed  until  quite  lately.  '  A  stout  stake  is 
driven  into  the  soil,  and  to  it  the  victim  is  fastened,  seated, 
and  anointed  with  ghee,  oil,  and  turmeric,  decorated  with 
flowers,  and  ivorshij)ped  during  the  day  by  the  assembly. 
At  nightfall  the  licentious  revelry  is  resumed,  and  on  the 
third  morning  the  victim  gets  some  milk  to  drink,  when 
the  presiding  priest  implores  the  goddess  to  shower  her 
blessings  on  the  people,  that  they  may  increase  and  multi- 
ply, prosperity  attend  their  cattle  and  poultry,  fertility 
their  fields,  and  happiness  to  the  people  generally.  The 
priest  recounts  the  origin  and  advantage  of  the  rite,  as 
previous!}^  detailed,  and  concludes  by  stating  that  the 
goJdess  has  boon  obeyed  and  the  peojile  assembled. 


(lurclisi'hosp  dm  Gott.     8')  gait  diosor  Quartiero   dor    Stadt    so,   dass  jcder 

mm  iVu"  todt,  cs  wunlo  ihm  wie  den  Mann  ein  Stiickclion  orliielt.' 

]Mi'iisohcn(>pferii    voiu    Priestor     das  '  MiiUer, /oc.  f;7.  p.  G17.     Prcscott, 

ITcrz  ausge.^Lhnittcn,  uiid  vom  Konigo,  loc.  cit.  vol.  i.  p.  5. 

dom    Stellvcrtrotor    des     Gottes     auf  -  Pr.  Shortt,  Trans.  El hn.  Soc.,N.S., 

Krdcn,    g(>gosson.       Don    LtMh    alter  a'oI.  vi.  p.  273, 

voi'theiltcn  sio  fiir  die  verselii(  donon 


EATIXG    THE    FETICH. 


211 


1 1,' 


*  Other  softening  expressions  are  recited  to  excite  the 
compassion  of  the  multitude.  After  the  mock  ceremony, 
nevertheless,  the  victim  is  taken  to  the  grove  where  the 
sacrifice  is  to  be  carried  out ;  and,  to  prevent  resistance, 
the  bones  of  the  arms  and  legs  are  broken,  or  the  victim 
drugged  Wxth  opium  or  datura,  when  the  janni  wounds  his 
victim  with  hiss  axe.  This  act  is  followed  up  by  the  crowd  ; 
a  number  now  press  forward  to  obtain  a  piece  of  his 
flesh,  and  in  a  moment  he  is  stripped  to  the  bones.' 

So  also  in  some  parts  of  Africa  '  eating  the  fetich '  is  a 
solemn  ceremony,  by  which  women  swear  fidelity  to  tli(?ir 
husbands,  men  to  their  friends.  On  a  marriage  in  Issini, 
the  parties  *  eat  the  fetish  together,  in  token  of  friendship, 
and  as  an  assurance  of  the  woman's  fidelity  toher  husband.'* 
In  taking  an  oath  also  the  same  ceremony  is  observed.  To 
know,  says  Loyer,  *  the  truth  from  any  negro,  you  need  only 
mix  something  in  a  little  water,  and  steeping  a  bit  of  bread, 
bid  him  eat  or  drink  that  fetish  as  a  sign  of  the  truth.  If 
the  thing  be  so,  he  will  do  it  freely ;  but  if  otherwise,  he 
will  not  touch  it,  believing  he  should  die  on  the  spot  if  ho 
swore  falsely.  Their  way  is  to  rasp  or  grate  a  little  of 
their  fetish  in  water,  or  on  any  edible,  and  so  put  it  in 
their  mouth  without  swallowing  it.' 

The  sacrifices,  however,  were  as  a  general  rule  not  eaten 
by  all  indiscriminately.  In  Feejee  they  were  confined  to 
the  old  men  and  priests ;  women  and  young  men  being 
excluded  from  any  share. 

Gradually  the  priests  established  their  claim  to  the 
whole,  a  result  which  could  not  fail  to  act  as  a  consider- 
able stimulus  to  the  practice  of  sacrifice.  It  also  affected 
the  character  of  the  w^orship.     Thus,  as  Bosnian  tells  us, 

•  Loyor,  iu  Astloy's  Collection  of  Voyugcs,  vol,  ii.  pp.  430,  441. 


t      !!    y 


fH 


242 


HDliAN   SACRIFICES. 


tlie  priests  encouraged  offerings  to  the  Serpent  raiher  than 
to  the  Sea,  because,  in  the  latter  case,  as  he  expresses  it, 

*  there  happens  no  remainder  to  be  left  for  them.' 

As  already  mentioned,  the  feeling  Tfhich  has  led  to  tb*» 
sacrifice  of  animals  would  naturally  culminate  in  that  of 
men.  So  natural,  indeed,  does  the  idea  of  human  sacrifice 
a2:)2:>ear  to  the  human  mind  in  this  stage,  that  we  meet  it  in 
various  nations  all  over  the  world. 

Human  sacrifices  occurred  in  Guinea,'  and  Burton  ^  saw 

*  at  Benin  city  a  young  woman  lashed  to  a  scaffolding 
upon  the  summit  of  a  tall  blasted  tree,  and  being  devoured 
by  the  turkey  buzzards.  The  people  declared  it  to  be  a 
*'  fetish  "  or  charm  for  bringing  rain.' 

Our  early  navigators  describe  them  as  taking  place 
occasionally  in  the  Pacific  Islands.  War  captives  were 
frequently  sacrificed  in  Brazil. 

Various  nations  in  India,  besides  the  Klionds  who  have 
been  already  mentioned,  used  to  offer  up  human  sacrifices 
on  extraordinary  occasions  ;  and  even  now  in  some  places, 
though  the  actual  sacrifice  is  no  longer  permitted,  they 
make  human  figures  of  flour,  paste,  or  clay,  and  then  cut  off 
the  heads  in  honour  of  their  gods.' 

Many  cases  of  human  sacrifice  are  mentioned  in  ancient 
history.  The  Carthaginians  after  their  defeat  of  Agathocles 
burnt  some  of  their  captives  as  a  sacrifice ;  the  Assyrians 
offered  human  sacrifices  to  the  god  Nergal.  Many  cases 
are  on  record  in  Greek  history,  and  among  the  Eomans 
even  down  to  the  time  of  the  emperors.  In  liome  a  statue 
of  Jupiter  was  sprinkled  every  year  with  human  blood,  down 
to  the  second  or  third  century  after  Christ,  and  in  Northern 
Europe  human  sacrifices  continued  to  a  much  later  period. 
In  Mexico  and  Peru  they  seem  to  have  been  peculiarly 

'  Astlpys  Collection  of  Voyages,  vol.         '  Abbeokuta,  vol.  i.  p.  19. 
iii.  p,  113.  '  Dubois,  loc.  cit,  p.  490. 


TEMPLES. 


243 


er  than 

»Hses  it, 

1  to  the 

that  of 

sacritice 

eetit  in 

;on  "^  saw 
iffolding 
levoured 
i  to  be  a 

ig  place 
ves  -Nvere 

vlio  have 

sacrifices 

le  places, 

ed,  they 

n  cut  off 

a  ancient 
fratliocles 
Assyrians 
any  cases 
Romans 
i  a  statue 
)od,  down 
Northern 
er  period. 
)eculiarly 

19. 

(1, 


numerous.  Miillor*  has  suggested  that  this  may  have 
partly  arisen  from  the  fact  that  these  races  were  not 
softened  by  the  possession  of  domestic  animals.  Various 
estimates  have  been  made  of  the  number  of  human  victims 
annually  sacrificed  in  the  Mexican  temples.  Miiller  thinks 
2,500  is  a  moderate  estimate  ;  but  in  one  year  it  appears 
to  have  exceeded  100,000. 

Among  the  Jews  we  find  a  system  of  animal  sacrifices 
on  a  great  scale,  and  symbols  of  human  sacrifices,  which 
can,  I  think,  only  be  understood  on  the  hypothesis  that 
they  were  once  usual.  The  case  of  Jephtha's  daughter 
is  generally  looked  upon  as  quite  exceptional,  but  the 
twenty-eighth  and  twenty-ninth  verses  of  the  twenty- 
seventh  chapter  of  Leviticus  appear  to  indicate  that  hu- 
man sacrifices  were  at  one  time  habitual  among  the  Jews.'^ 

The  lower  savages  have  no  Temples  or  sacred  buildings. 
Throughout  the  New  World  there  was  no  such  thinj?  as 
a  temple,  excepting  among  the  semi-civilised  races  of 
Central  America  and  Peru. 

The  Stiens  of  Cambodia  *have  neither  priest  nor 
temples.''  We  should  seek  in  vain,  says  Casalis,^  'from  the 
extremity  of  the  southern  promontory  of  Africa  to  the 
country  far  beyond  the  banks  of  the  Zambesi,  for  anything 
like  the  pagodas  of  India,  the  maraes  of  Polynesia,  or  the 
fetish  huts  of  Nigritia.'  The  people  of  Madagascar,  as  we 
are  informed  by  Drury,'^  who  resided  fifteen  years  among 
them,  although  they  have  settled  abodes,  keep  large  herds 
of  cattle,  and  are  diligent  agriculturists,  *  have  no  temples, 
no  tabernacles,  or  groves  for  the  public  performance  of 
their  divine  worship ;  neither  have  they  solemn  fasts,  or 


'  Gcschichte     der    Amcricanishcn  '  ^louli    's  Travels  in  tlie  Cpntral 

Urreligioneni,  p.  23.  Parts  of  Indo-Cliina,  vol.  i.  p.  200. 

■^  15uc  see  Kiilisch,  Commentary  on  *  TIip  Basutos,  p.  237. 

the  Old  Testament,  Lev.  Pt  I,  p.  409.  *  Adventures  of  liubcrt  Drury,  p.  x. 


,f 


tol ' 


PRIESTS. 

festivals,  or  sot  days  or  times,  nor  priests  to  do  it  for 
them.' 

Professor  Nillson  was,  I  believe,  the  first  to  point  out  that 
certain  races  buried  the  dead  in  their  houses,  and  that  the 
chambered  tumuli  of  Northern  Europe  are  probably  copies 
of  the  dAvellings  then  used,  sometimes  perhaps  the  actual 
dwellings  themselves.  We  know  that  as  the  power  of 
chiefs  increased,  their  tombs  became  larger  and  more 
magnificent,  and  Mr.  Fergusson  has  well  shown  how  in 
India  the  tumulus  has  developed  into  the  temple. 

In  some  cases,  as  for  instance  in  India,  it  is  far  from 
easy  to  distinguish  between  a  group  of  stone  gods  and  a 
sacred  fane.  In  fact,  we  may  be  sure  that  the  very  same 
stones  are  by  some  supposed  to  be  actual  deities,  while 
others  more  advanced  regard  them  as  sacred  only  because 
devoted  to  religious  purposes.  Some  of  the  ruder  Hindostan 
tribes  actually  worship  tipright  stones ;  but  Colonel  Forbes 
Leslie  regards  the  sacred  stones  rfo  resented  in  PI.  IV. 
as  a  place  of  worship,  rather  than  a  s  actual  deities ;  and 
this  is  at  any  rate  the  case  with  another  group  {Front is- 
2ncce)  similarly  painted,  which  he  observed  near  Andlee, 
also  in  the  Dekhiiu,  ard  which  is  peculiarly  interesting  from 
its  resemblance  '^o  ilie  stone  circles  of  our  own  country. 

Fig.  18,  p.  156,  represents,  after  Lafitau,^  a  religious 
dance  as  practised  by  the  Eedskins  of  Virginia.  Here,  also, 
as  already  mentioned,  we  see  a  sacred  circle  of  stones, 
differing  from  those  of  our  own  country  and  of  India  only 
in  having  a  human  head  rudely  carved  on  each  stone. 

T1m>  lower  races  of  men  have  no  Priests  properly  so  called. 
Many  passages,  indeed,  may  be  quoted  winch,  at  first  sight, 
api^ear  to  negative  this  assertion.  If,  however,  we  examine 
more  olosely  the  true  functions  of  these  so-called 'priests,' 
we  shall  easily  satisfy  ourselves  that  the  term  is  a  inisno- 

'  McEurs  des  Saiiv.  Anicr.,  vol.  ii.  p.  13G. 


THE   SOUL. 


215 


* 


lo  it  for 

j  out  11  mt 
that  the 
ly  copies 
be  actual 
power  of 
,nd  more 
1  liOAV  in 

far  from 
els  and  a 
very  same 
ies,  wliile 
y  because 
Sindostan 
lel  Forbes 
n  PI.  IV. 
.ties;  and 
)  [Front is- 
,Y  Andlee, 
sting  from 
ountry. 
[,  religious 
lere,  also, 
of  stones, 
ndia  only 
stone, 
so  called, 
first  sight, 
e  examine 
1 '  priests,' 
a  misno- 


mer, and  that  wizards  only  are  intended.  Without  temples 
and  sacrifices  there  cannot  be  priests. 

Even  the  New  Zealanders'  had  '  no  regular  priesthood.' 
Mr.  Gladstone'^  observes  that  the  priest  was  not,  *as  such 
a  significant  personage  in  Greece  at  any  period,  nor  had 
the  priest  of  any  one  place  or  deity,  so  far  as  we  know, 
any  organic  connection  with  the  priest  of  any  other ;  so 
that  if  there  were  priests,  yet  there  was  not  a  priesthood.' 

I  have  already  pointed  out  {ante,  p.  138)  the  great  differ- 
ence between  the  belief  in  ghosts  and  in  the  existence 
of  a  soul.  Even,  however,  those  races  which  have  so  far 
advanced  as  to  believe  in  the  latter,  yet  differ  from  us  very 
much  in  their  views ;  and  in  fact  ihe  belief  in  an  universal, 
independeiit,  and  endless  existence  is  confi^ned  to  the  very 
highest  races  of  men.  The  New  Zealanders  believe  that 
a  man  who  is  eaten  as  well  as  killed,  is  thus  destroyed 
both  fcioul  and  body.^  Even,  however,  those  who  have 
proj^er  interment  are  far  from  secure  of  reaching  the 
happier  regions  in  the  land  of  spirits.  The  road  to  llicm 
is  long  and  dangerous,  and  many  a  soul  perislu^s  by  the 
way.  In  the  Tonga  Islands  the  chiefs  are  regaiJcd  as 
immortal,  the  Tooas  or  common  people  as  more  j  ;  v.-itU 
reference  to  the  intermediate  class  or  Mooas  there  is  a 
difference  of  opinion. 

A  friend  of  Mr.  Lang's  ■*  '  trie(  long  and  2)atiently  ^o 
make  a  very  intelligent  docile  Australian  black  understand 
his  existence  without  a  body,  bui  the  black  never  could 
keep  his  countenance  and  gener  llymade  an  excuse  to  get 
away.  One  day  the  teacher  watched  and  found  that  he 
went  to  have  a  hearty  fit  of  laughter  at  the  [ibsurdity  of 
the  idea  of  a  man  living  and  going  about  without  arms, 
legs,  or  mouth  to  eat ;  for  a  long  time  he  could  not  believe 

*  Yatc,  p.  146.  *  Juvei-i  IS  Miindi,  p.  181. 

*  Taylor,  Now  Zualanrl  and  its  Iiiliabitunts..  p.  101. 

*  Tile  Aborigines  of  Australia,  p.  31. 


■      I  i  .1 


^  i 


r-raam 


hri 


» -" 


I 


d,- 


if  s| ;) 


24G 


SOULS    OP   INANIMATE    OBJECTS. 


tliat  tlie  gentleman  was  serious,  and  wlien  he  did  realise 
it,  the  more  serious  the  teacher  was  the  more  ludicrous  the 
whole  affair  appeared  to  the  black.' 

The  resurrection  of  the  body  as  preached  by  the  mission- 
aries,^ appeared  to  the  Tahitians  *  astounding  '  and  '  in- 
credible ;'  and  '  as  the  subject  was  more  frequently  brought 
mider  their  notice  in  public  discourse,  or  in  reading  the 
Scriptures,  and  their  minds  were  more  attentively  exercised 
upon  it  in  connection  with  their  ancestry,  themselves,  and 
their  descendants,  it  appeared  invested  with  more  than 
ordinary  difficulty,  bordermg,  to  their  apprehension,  on 
inij)0ssibility.' 

Although  the  Feejeeans  believe  that  almost  everything 
has  a  sjiirit,  few  spirits  are  immortal :  the  road  to  Mbulu 
is  long,  and  beset  with  so  many  difficulties,  that  after  all 
*few  attain  to  immortality.'^  As  regards  Central  India, 
Colonel  Dalton  says,^  'I  do  not  think  that  the  present 
generation  of  Kols  liave  any  notion  of  a  heaven  or  a  hell 
that  may  not  be  traced  to  Brahminical  or  Christian  teach- 
ing. The  old  idea,  is  that  the  sou's  of  the  dead  become 
"bhoots,"  spirits,  but  no  thoaght  of  reward  or  punish- 
ment is  connected  with  the  change.  When  a  Ho  swears, 
the  oath  has  no  reference  whatever  to  a  future  state.  He 
prays  that  if  he  spea,k  not  the  truth  he  may  be  afflicted  in 
this  world  with  the  loss  of  all — health,  wealth,  wife, 
children ;  that  he  may  sow  without  reaping,  and  finally 
m.iy  be  devoured  by  a  tiger;  but  he  swears  not  by  any 
hapiiiness  beyond  the  grave.  He  has  in  his  primitive 
state  no  such,  hope;  and  I  believe  that  most  Indian 
,borigInes,  though  they  may  have  some  vague  ideas  of 
continuous  existence,  will  be  found  equally  devoid  of 
original  notions  in  regard  to  the  judgment  to  come.' 


'  Ellis'  I'olyneslan  E^searches,  yol.        ^  Fiji  and  the  Fijians,  vol.  i.  p.  247. 
d  p.  l(;5.  '  Traus.  Ethu.  Sue.  1867,  p.  38. 


IDEAS   OP   HEAVEN. 


217 


d  realise 
3rous  the 

mission- 
and  '  iii- 
f  brought 
idiiig"  tlie 
exercised 
ilves,  and 
lore  than 
nsioii,  on 

verything 
to  Mbulu 
t  after  all 
ral  India, 
e  present 
I  or  a  hell 
ian  teach- 
Ld  become 
r  punish- 
^o  swears, 
tate.     He 
tfflicted  in 
,1th,   wife, 
Lnd  finally 
ot  by  any 

primitive 
st  Indian 
)  ideas  of 

devoid   of 
me.' 

vol.  i.  p.  217. 
i67,  p.  38. 


V 


Even  when  tlie  spirit  is  supposed  to  survive  the  body, 
the  condition  of  souls  after  death  is  not  at  first  con- 
sidered to  differ  materially  from  that  during  life.  Heaven 
is  merely  a  distant  part  of  earth.  Thus  the  '  seats  of 
happiness  are  represented  by  some  Hindu  writers  to  be 
vast  mountains  on  the  north  of  India.'  ^  Again,  in  Tonga 
the  souls  are  sujDposed  to  go  to  Bolotoo,  a  large  island  to 
the  north-west,  well  stocked  ^  with  all  hinds  of  useful  and 
ornamental  plants,  '•  always  bearing  the  richest  fruits  and 
the  most  beautiful  flowers  according  to  their  respective  na- 
tures; that  when  these  fruits  or  flowers  are  plucked,  others 
immediately  occupy  their  place  .  .  .  tlip  island  is  also  well 
stocked  with  the  most  beautiful  birds  of  all  imaginable 
kinds,  as  well  as  with  abundance  of  hogs,  all  of  which  are 
immortal,  unless  they  are  killed  to  prov  ide  food  for  the 
hotooas  or  gods,  but  the  moment  a  hog  or  bird  is  killed, 
another  hog  or  bird  immediately  comes  into  existence  to 
supply  its  place,  the  same  as  with  the  fruits  and  flowers  ; 
and  this,  as  far  as  they  know  or  suppose,  is  the  only  mode 
of  propagation  of  plants  and  animals.  The  island  of 
Bolotoo  is  supposed  to  be  so  far  off  as  to  render  it  danger- 
ous for  their  canoes  to  attempt  going  there  ;  and  it  is 
supposed,  moreover,  that  even  if  they  were  to  succeed  in 
reaching  so  far,  unless  it  happened  to  be  the  particular 
will  of  the  gods,  they  would  be  sure  to  miss  it.' 

Thty  believe,  however,  that  on  one  occasion  a  canoe 
actually  reached  Bolotoo.  The  crew  landed,  but  when 
they  attempted  to  touch  anything,  *they  could  no  more 
lay  hold  of  it  than  if  it  had  been  a  shadow.'  Consequently 
hunger  soon  overtook  them,  and  forced  them  to  return, 
which  they  fortunately  succeeded  in  doing. 

A  curious  notion,  already  referred  to,  is  the  belief  that 
each  man  has    several   souls.     It  is  common  to  various 


'  Dubois,  he.  cif.  p.  48«'). 


"^  Mariner,  loc,  cit.  vol.  ii.  p.  108. 


"-■"'issw 


218 


l    '.:■ 


! 


iijpit 


'  t    ^ 


PLURALITY   OF   SOULS. 


parts  of  America,'  iiiul  exists  also  in  MaJi. j^asear.  It 
apparently  arlscr-  L  om  the  idea  that  each  pulse  is  the 
seat  of  a  different  life.  It  also  derives  an  appearance  of 
probability  from  the  inconsistencies  of  behaviour  to  which 
savages  are  so  prone.  The  reejeeans  also  believed  that 
each  man  has  two  spirits.*  Among  the  ancient  Greeks 
and  Komans  there  are  some  indications  of  the  existence 
of  a  similar  belief.^ 

The  belief  in  a  future  state,  if  less  elevated  than  our 
own,  is  singularly  vivid  among  some  barbarous  races.  Thus 
Ca3sar  assures  us  that  among  the  ancient  Britons  money 
was  habitually  lent  on  what  may  strictly  be  termed 
*  postobits  ' — promises  to  pay  in  another  world. 

The  Feejeeans  believe  that  *  as  they  die,  sucli  will  be  their 
condition  in  anotlier  world ;  hence  their  desire  to  escape 
extreme  infirmity.'  *  The  way  to  Mbulu,  as  already  men- 
tioned, is  long  and  difficult ;  many  always  perish,  and 
no  diseased  or  infirm  person  could  possibly  succeed  in  sur- 
mounting all  the  dangers  of  the  road.  Hence  as  soon  as 
a  nian  feels  the  approach  of  old  age.  he  notifies  to  his 
children  that  it  is  time  for  him  to  die.  If  he  neglects  to 
do  so,  the  children  after  awhile  take  the  matter  into  their 
own  hands.  A  family  consultation  is  held,  a  day  appointed, 
and  the  grave  dug.  The  aged  person  has  his  choice  of 
being  strangled  or  buried  alive.  Mr.  Hunt  gives  the 
following  striking  description  of  such  a.  ceremony  once 
witness'^d  by  him.  A  young  man  came  to  him  and  in- 
vited him  to  attend  his  mother's  funeral,  which  was  just 
going  to  take  place.  Mr.  Hunt  accepted  the  invitation, 
and  joined  the  procession,  but,  sur2)rised  to  see  no  corpse, 


•  Tertre's  Ilisto-y  of  the  Carilby 
Isl.inds,  p.  288.  It  prevails  also  in 
Greenland.  Midler,  Gos.  der  Am. 
UiToligiunem,  p.  G6. 


'  Fiji  and  the  Fijians.vol.  i.  p.  211. 

'  Lafitau,  vol.  ii.  p.  424. 

*  Fiji  and  the  Fijiaus,vjl.  i.  p.  183. 


THE    FUTURE    STATE. 


219 


fdV.      It 

is  the 
L'lincc  of 

0  wliicli 
icd  that 

Greeks 
xistcnee 

hail  our 
s.  Thus 
.s  money 
»  termed 

1  be  their 
o  escape 
idy  men- 
rish,  and 
d  in  sur- 
[S  soon  as 
bij  to  his 

Meets  to 
.uto  their 
^pointed, 
Ichoice  of 
ives  the 
iiy  once 
and  in- 
was  just 
iivitation, 
.0  corpse, 

pLi.  p.  211. 
■jl.  i.  p.  183. 


he  made  enquiries,  when  the  young  man  *  pointed  out  his 
mother,  -vvho  was  walking  along  with  them,  as  gijy  and 
lively  as  any  of  those  present,  and  apparently  as  iiuuh 
pleased.  Mr.  Hunt  expressed  his  sur^jrisc  to  the  young 
man,  and  asked  how  he  could  deceive  him  so  much  by 
saying  his  mother  was  dead,  when  she  was  alive  and  well. 
He  said,  in  reply,  that  they  had  made  her  death-feast,  and 
were  now  going  to  bury  her ;  that  she  was  old,  that  his 
brother  and  himself  had  thought  she  had  lived  long 
enough,  and  it  was  time  to  bury  her,  to  which  she  had 
willingly  assented,  and  they  were  about  it  now.  He  hnd 
come  to  Mr.  Hunt  to  ask  his  prayers,  as  they  did  those  of 
the  priest. 

*  He  added,  that  it  was  from  love  for  his  mother  that  ho 
had  done  so ;  that,  in  consequence  of  the  same  love,  they 
were  now  going  to  bury  her,  and  that  none  but  themselves 
could  or  ought  to  do  such  a  sacred  office  !  Mr.  Hunt  did 
all  in  his  power  to  prevent  so  diabolical  an  act ;  but  the 
only  reply  he  received  was  that  she  was  their  motiier,  and 
they  were  her  children,  and  they  onght  to  put  her  to  death. 
On  reaching  the  grave,  the  mother  sat  down,,  when  they 
all,  including  children,  grandchildren,  relations  and  friends, 
took  an  affectionate  leave  of  her ;  a  rope,  made  of  twisted 
tapa,  was  then  passed  twice  around  her  neck  by  her  sons, 
who  took  hold  of  it  and  strangled  her ;  after  which  she 
was  put  in  her  grave,  with  the  usual  ceremonies. '• 

So  general  was  this  custom  that  in  one  town  containing 
several  hundred  inhabitants  Captain  Wilkes  did  not  see 
one  man  over  forty  years  of  age,  all  the  old  people  having 
been  buried. 

In  Dahomey  the  king  sends  constant  messages  to  his 
deceased   father,  by  messengers  who  are  killed   for  the 

'  Wilkes'  Exploring  Expedition.     Condensed  edition,  p.  211. 
12 


:il 


|l     .    I, 'a' 


i 


I'  '  -  <ii  <i 


;  il« 


CIIKATION. 


piirposo.  Tlio  aamo  finii  bolh-fwliicli  loads  to  this  reconciles 
the  niessenj^ors  to  their  fate.  They  are  well  treated  befon;- 
liaud,  and  their  death  being  instantaneous  is  attended 
with  little  pain.  Hence  wc  arc  assured  that  they  are  (piiie 
cheerful  and  contented,  and  scarcely  seem  to  look  on  their 
death  as  a  misfortune. 

The  North  American  Indian,  as  Schoolcraft  tells  us,  has 
little  dread  of  death.  *  lie  does  not  fear  to  go  to  a  land 
which,  all  his  life  long,  he  has  hoard  abounds  in  roward3 
without  punishments.'^ 

Wo  know  that  the  Japanese  commit  suicide  for  the 
most  trilling  causes  ;  and  it  is  said  that  in  China,  if  a  rich 
man  is  condemned  to  death,  he  can  always  purchase  a 
willing  substitute  at  a  very  small  expense. 

The  lower  races  have  no  idea  of  Creation,  and  even  anion  nf 
those  somewhat  more  advanced,  it  is  at  first  very  incom- 
plete. Their  deities  are  part  of,  not  the  makers  of,  the 
world  ;  and  even  when  the  idea  of  creation  dawns  upon  the 
mind,  it  is  not  strictly  a  creation,  but  merely  the  raising 
of  land  already  existing  at  the  bottom  of  the  original  sea. 

The  Abipones  had  no  theory  on  the  subject;  when 
questioned  by  Do"!  ■ritzhoffer,'^  '  my  father,  replied  Yehoalay 
readily  and  fra-iikly,  our  grandfathers,  and  great-grandfa- 
thers, were  wont  to  contemplate  the  earth  alone,  solicitous 
only  to  see  whether  the  plain  afforded  grass  and  water  for 
their  horses.  They  never  troubled  themselves  about  what 
went  on  in  the  heavens,  and  who  was  the  creator  and 
governor  of  the  stars.' 

Father  Baegert,^  in  his  account  of  the  Californian 
Indians,  says,  '  I  often  asked  them  whether  they  had  never 
put  to  themselves  the  question  who  might  be  the  Creator 
and  Preserver  of  the  sun,  moon,  stars,  and  other  objects  of 


e: 


'  Seliook-i-iift's   Indian   Tribes,  vol. 
ii.  p.  G8. 


*  Loc.  cit.  vol.  ii.  p.  59. 
3  Loc.  cit.  p.  390. 


bcforo- 

•0  (luiio 
)n  their 

us,  lias 
)  a  laml 
rewards 

for  tho 

if  a  rich 

n'chase  a 

311  anion  <4 
•y  incom- 
,rs  of,  the 
upon  the 
le  raisin  fj? 
cinal  sea. 
ct;  when 
Yehoalay 
b-o-randfa- 
solicitous 
water  for 
Ibout  what 
:-eacor  and 

^alifornian 

1  had  never 

he  Creat.ir 

objects  (if 


b 


CREATION. 


2.-4 


nature,  but  wiis  alwnys  sent  homo  with  a  "  viira,"  which 
nieiiiis  "no"  in  tlicir  liin<j^ua<^e.' 

Tlie  Chipewyans  '  tliouyht  tlnit  the  world  existed  \\i 
first  ill  ilio  form  of  a  globe  of  water,  out  of  which  the 
Great  Spirit  raised  the  land.  The  Leiiui  Lenape^  say 
that  Miiuitu  at  the  beginning  swam  on  the  water,  and 
made  the  earth  out  of  a  grain  of  sand.  lie  then  made  a 
man  and  woman  out  of  a  tree.  The  IMingos  .uid  Ottawwaws 
believe  that  a  rat  bronght  up  a  grain  of  sand  from  the 
bottom  of  the  water,  and  thus  produced  the  land.  The 
Crees'  had  no  ideas  at  all  as  to  the  origin  of  the  world. 

Stuhr,  who  was,  as  Miiller  says,  a  good  observer  of  such 
matters,  tells  us  that  the  Siberians  had  no  idea  of  a 
Creator.  When  Burchell  suggested  the  idea  of  Creation 
to  the  Bachapin  Kaffirs,  they  *  asserted  that  everything 
made  itself,  and  that  trees  and  herbage  gi'ew  by  their 
own  will.'  *  It  also  appears  from  Canon  Callaway's  re- 
searches that  the  Zulu  Kaffirs  have  no  notion  of  Creation. 
Casalis  makes  the  same  statement:  all  the  natives,  he 
says,  *  whom  we  questioned  on  the  subject  have  assured  us 
that  it  never  entered  their  heads  that  the  earth  and  sky 
might  be  the  work  of  an  Invisible  Being.' ^  The  same  is 
also  the  case  with  the  Hottentots. 

The  Australians,  again,  had  no  idea  of  Creation.  Accord- 
ing to  Polynesian  mythology,  heaven  and  earth  existed  from 
the  beginning.^  The  latter,  however,  was  at  first  covered 
by  water,  until  Ma  we  drew  up  New  Zealand  by  means  of  an 
enchanted  fish-hook.^  This  fish-hook  was  made  from  the 
jawbone  of  Muri-ranga-whenna,  and  is  now  the  cape 
forming  the  southern  extremity  of  Ilawkes'  Bay.     The 


'  Dunn's  Orogon,  p.  102. 

'  Muller,  Ges.  d.  Amer.  Urr.,  p. 
107. 

*  Franklin's  .Tourn(>y  to  the  Polar 
Soa,  vol.  i.  p.  143. 


*  Loc.  cit.  vol.  ii.  p.  .O.jO. 

*  The  Basutos,  p.  '.iliS. 

*  Polynesian  JNIjtLology,  p.  1. 
'  Ibid.  p.  4o. 


\ 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


1.0 


I.I 


Hi  MM 


1 2.5 
2.2 


lb 


IL25  1 1.4 


1.6 


V 


Photographic 

Sdences 
Corporation 


23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  14580 

(716)  872-4503 


4% 


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' ' '  'i^y 

PI  '; 

■ 

Mi  W 

^^B 

t^Mj.i-    IB; 

ti^^^i 

mi  \ 

H 

m'W 

*■'""'! 

1 

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1 

i 
1 

252 


CREATION. 


Tongans '  have  a  very  similar  tale.  Hero  the  islands  were 
drawn  up  by  Tangaloa,  '  but  the  line  accKlentally  breakinj^^, 
the  act  was  incomplete,  and  matters  were  left  as  they  now 
are.  They  show  a  hole  in  the  rock,  about  two  feet 
in  diameter,  which  quite  perforates  it,  and  in  which 
Tangoloa^s  hook  got  fixed.  It  is  moreover  said  that 
Tooitonga  had,  till  within  a  few  years,  this  very  hook  in  his 
possession.' 

As  regards  Tahiti,  Williams'  observes  that  the  *  origin 
of  the  Gods,  and  their  priority  of  existence  in  comparison 
with  the  formation  of  the  earth,  being  a  matter  of  uncer- 
tainty even  among  the  native  priests,  involves  the  whole 
in  the  greatest  obscurity.'  Even  in  Sanskrit  there  is  no 
word  for  creation,  nor  does  any  such  idea  appear  in  the 
Rigveda,  in  the  Zendavesta,  or  in  Homer. 

When  the  Capuchin  missionary  MeroUa'  asked  the 
queen  of  Singa,  in  Western  Africa,  who  made  the  world,  she 
*  without  the  least  hesitation,  readily  answered, "  My  ances- 
tors." "  Then,"  replied  the  Capuchin,  "  does  your  majesty 
enjoy  the  whole  power  of  your  ancestors  ?  "  "  Yes,"  an- 
swered she,  "  and  much  more,  for  over  and  above  what  they 
had,  I  am  absolute  mistress  of  tLe  kingdom  of  Matamba ! " 
A  remark  which  shows  how  little  she  realised  the  meaninir 
of  the  term  "  Creation." '  The  negroes  in  Guinea  thought 
that  man  was  created  by  a  great  black  spider."*  Other 
negroes,  however,  liave  more  just  ideas  on  the  subject, 
pix)bably  derived  from  the  missionaries. 

The  Kumis  of  Chittagong  believe  that  a  certain  Deity 
made  the  world  and  the  trees  and  the  creej)ing  things,  and 
lastly  *  he  set  to  work  to  make  one  man  and  one  woman, 
forming  their  todies  of  clay  ;  but  each  night,  on  the  com- 


'  Marinov,  loc.  cit.  vol.  i.  p.  284. 
^  Polynesiuu    Kt'seaivberf,    vul.    ii. 
p.  191. 


'  Pinkerton's  Voyages,  vol.  xvl.  p. 
30.). 
*  Loc.  cit.  p.  4G9. 


mm-tr^ 


PRAYER. 


253 


inds  woro 
brealvin',S 
tliey  now 
two  feet 
in  wliit'li 
said  that 
lOok  ill  liis 

lie  *  origin 
!oini)arisoii 
r  of  uncer- 
tlie  wliole 
there  is  no 
jear  in  the 

aslied   the 
e  world,  she 
"  My  ances- 
our  majesty 
"  Yes,"  an- 
e  what  they 
Matamha ! " 
he  meanint? 
iiea  thong-ht 
ler.*     Other 
the  subject, 

irtain  Deity 

things,  and 

lone  woman. 

Ion  the  com- 

Igos,  vol.  xvi.  p. 


plrtioii  of  his  work,  there  came  a  grciit  ST'ake,  ■which,  while 
God  was  sleeping,  devoured  the  two  images/*  At  lei.gtu 
the  Deity  created  a  dog,  which  drove  away  tlie  snake,  and 
thus  the  creation  of  man  was  accomplished. 

"VVe  cannot  fail  also  to  be  struck  with  the  fact  that  the 
lower  forms  of  religion  are  almost  independent  of  prayer. 
To  us  prayer  seems  almost  a  necessary  part  of  religion. 
But  it  evidently  involves  a  belief  in  the  goodness  of  God, 
a  truth  which,  as  we  have  seen,  is  not  early  recognised. 

Of  the  Hottentots  Kolben  says,  *  It  is  most  certain  they 
neither  pray  to  any  one  of  their  deities  nor  utter  a  word 
to  any  mortal  concerning  the  condition  of  their  souls  or  a 
future  life.  .  .  .  Preparation  for  death,  in  a  spiritual  sense, 
is  a  thing  they  never  appeared  to  me  to  have  any  notion  of.''' 
And  again  :  *  It  does  not  appear  that  they  have  any  insti- 
tution of  worship  directly  regarding  the  supreme  God.  I 
never  saw,  nor  could  I  hear,  that  any  one  of  them  paid  any 
act  of  devotion  immediately  to  him.''  Even  those  negroes, 
says  Bosnian,  who  have  a  faint  conception  of  a  higher 
D(>ity  *  do  not  pray  to  him,  or  offer  any  sacrifices  to  him ; 
for  which  they  give  the  following  reasons  :  "  God,"  say  they, 
"is  too  high  exalted  above  us,  and  too  great  to  condescend 
so  much  as  to  trouble  himself,  or  think  of  mankind."  '* 

■The  Mandingoes,  according  to  Park,  regard  the  Deity 
as  *  so  remote,  and  of  so  exalted  a  nature,  that  it  is  idle  to 
imagine  the  feeble  supplications  of  wretched  mortals  can 
reverse  the  decrees,  and  change  the  purposes,  of  unerring 
Wisdom.'^  They  seem,  however,  to  have  little  confidence 
in  their  own  views,  and  generally  assured  Park,  in  answer 
to  his  enquiries  about  religion  and  the  immortality  of  the 
soul,  that  *  no  man  knows  anything  about  it.'     *  Neither 


'!    .? 


Ihi 


'  Lowin's  Ilill  Tracts  of  Chittagong, 
p.  90. 

'  Loc.  cit.  p.  316. 


*  Loc.  cit.  p.  9.). 

*  ]5i)snian,  he.  cit.  p.  403. 

»  Tiirk's  Travels,  vol.  i.  p.  2G7. 


251 


MORALITY. 


1 


I  I 


iiinong  the  Eskimos  nor  Tinne,'  says  Richardson,  *  could  I 
ascertain  tliat  prayer  was  ever  made  to  the  "A'i7c7ic  Man'doy^ 
the  Great  Spirit  or  "  Master  of  Life.'"  *  Mr.  Prescott,  in 
Schoolcraft's  Indian  Tribes,  also  states  that  the  North 
American  Indians  do  not  pray  to  the  Great  Spirit.'*  Tl\e 
Caribs  considered  that  the  Good  Spirit  *  is  endued  with  so 
great  goodness,  that  it  does  not  take  any  revenge  even  of 
its  enemies  :  whence  it  comes  that  they  render  it  neither 
honour  nor  adoration.'^ 

According  to  Metz,  the  Todas  (Neilgherry  Hills)  never 
pray.  Even  among  the  priests,  he  says,  '  the  only  sign  of 
adoration  that  I  have  ever  seen  them  perform  is  lifting  the 
right  hand  to  the  forehead,  covering  the  nose  with  the 
thumb,  wdien  entering  the  sacred  dairy :  and  the  words, 
"  May  all  be  well,"  are  all  that  I  have  ever  heard  them  utter 
in  the  form  of  a  prayer.'^ 

The  connection  between  morality  and  religion  will  be 
considered  in  a  later  chapter.  Here,  I  will  only  observe 
that  the  deities  of  the  lower  races  being  subject  to  the  same 
passions  as  man,  and  'n  many  cases,  indeed,  themselves 
monsters  of  iniquity,  regarded  crime  with  indifference,  so 
long  as  the  religious  ceremonies  and  sacrifices  in  their 
honour  were  not  neglected.  Hence  it  follows  that  through 
all  these  lower  races  there  is  no  idea  of  any  being  corre- 
sponding to  Satan.  So  far,  indeed,  as  their  deities  are  ev^il 
they  may  be  so  called ;  but  the  essential  character  of 
Satan  is  that  of  the  Tempter ;  hence  in  the  order  of  suc- 
cession this  idea  cannot  arise  until  morality  has  become 
connected  with  religion. 

Thus,  then,  I  have  endeavoured  to  trace  the  gradual 
development  of  religion  among  the  lower  races  of  man. 

'  Richardson's  Boat  Journey,  vol.  ii. 
p.  44. 


"  Prescott.      Schoolcraft's      Indian 
Tribes,  vol.  iii.  p.  22G. 


*  Tcrtro'g   History  of  tho  Caribby 
Islands,  p.  278. 

*  Tribes  of  tho  Ncilgherrios,  p.  27. 


*  could  I 
Man  it  0,^* 
escott,  ill 
lie  Nortli 
it.»  Tl;e 
d  with  so 
;e  even  of 
it  neither 

lis)  never 
ly  sign  of 
ifting  the 
with  the 
he  words, 
hem  utter 

)n  will  be 
y  observe 
the  same 
lemselves 
erence,  so 
in  their 
through 
Jig  corre- 
s  are  evil 
Tacter  of 
er  of  suc- 
s  become 

3  gradual 
of  man. 

tlio  Carlbby 
srrios,  p.  27. 


THE   NATURE   OF   IDOLS. 


Zoo 


The  higher  faiths,  however,  merely  snperimpose<l  them- 
selves on,  and  did  not  eradicate,  the  lower  superstitious. 
How  low  these  were,  is  not  perLaps  generally  realised. 
Thus  even  Lord  Karnes  lays  it  down  as  a  self-evident 
proposition  that  *  the  ancient  Egyptians  were  not  idiots, 
to  pay  divine  honours  to  a  bull  or  a  cat  as  such :  the 
divine  honours  were  paid  to  a  deity  as  residing  in  these 
animals.'^  Yet  the  very  same  author  tells  us  that 
Augustus,  having  twice  lost  his  fleet  by  storm,  forbade 
Neptune  to  be  carried  in  procession  along  with  the  other 
gods ;  imagining  he  had  avenged  himself  of  Neptune  by 
neglecting  his  favourite  statue.^  And  again,  as  I  have 
already  mentioned  {mite,  p.  231),  he  quotes  the  fact  that 
during  a  siege  the  Tyrians  chained  up  a  statue  of  Hercules, 
in  the  idea  that  they  would  thus  prevent  their  deity  from 
deserting  to  the  enemy .^ 

Nay,  in  the  absence  of  education,  not  even  Christianity 
prevents  mankind  from  fiilling  into  these  errors.  Thus, 
'when  we  were  in  Portugal,'^  says  Captain  Brydone, 
*  the  people  of  Castelbranco  were  so  enraged  at  St.  An- 
tonio for  suffering  the  Spaniards  to  plunder  their  town, 
contrary,  as  they  affirmed,  to  his  express  agi'eement 
with  them,  that  they  broke  many  of  his  statues  to  pieces ; 
and  one  that  had  been  more  revered  than  the  rest,  they 
took  the  head  off,  and  in  its  stead  placed  one  of  St.  Francis. 
The  great  St.  Januarius  himself  was  in  imminent  danger 
during  the  last  famine  at  Naples.  They  loaded  him  with 
abuse  and  invectives,  and  declared  point-blank  that  if  he 
did  not  procure  them  corn  by  such  a  time,  he  should  be 
no  longer  their  saint.'  Here  we  have  the  grossest  fetich- 
ism,  and  indeed  we  know  that  a  belief  in  witchcraft  was 


'  Lor.  cit.  vol.  iv.  p.  1 93. 

*  History  of  Man,  vol.  iv.  p.  320. 

'  Lord  Kamcs'  History  of  Man,  vol. 


iv.  p.  32.'). 

*  Loc.  cit.  p.  320. 


I 


li 


1l 


I 
i 
11 


250 

all  but 


SCIENCE   AND   RELIGION. 


:sal  until 


itly 


iti 


universal  until  recently  even  in  our  own  couni 
Tlii.s  dark  superstition  has  indeed  flourislied  for  centuries 
in  Christian   countries,   and   has   only  been  expelled  at 
len^^th  by  the  light  of  science.     It  still  survives  wherever 
I   /  science  has  not  penetrated. 

The  immense  service  which  Science  has  thus  rendered 
to  the  cause  of  religion  and  of  humanity,  has  not  hitherto 
received  the  recognition  which  it  deserves.  Science  is  stiil 
regarded  by  many  excellent,  but  narrow-minded,  persons  as 
hostile  to  religious  truth,  while  in  fact  she  is  only  opposed 
to  religious  error.  No  doubt  her  influence  has  always  been 
exercised  in  opposition  to  those  who  present  contradictory 
assertions  under  the  excuse  of  mystery,  and  to  all  but  the 
highest  conceptions  of  Divine  power.  The  time,  however, 
is  approaching  when  it  will  be. generally  perceived  that 
so  far  from  science  being  opposed  to  religion,  true  religion 
is,  without  science,  impossible;  and  if  we  consider  the 
various  aspects  of  Christianity  as  understood  by  diiferent 
nations,  we  can  hardly  fail  to  perceive  that  the  dignity, 
and  therefore  the  truth,  of  their  religious  beliefs  is  in 
direct  relation  to  the  knowledge  of  science  and  of  the 
great  physical  laws  by  which  our  imiverse  is  governed. 

*  See  Lecky's  Ilistory  of  Rationalism,  loc.  cit.  pp.  8,  9,  G7,  134,  &c. 


ouiitry.* 

idled  at 
vlierever 


'!i 


rendered 
hitherto 
ce  is  stiil 
arsons  as 
opposed 
ays  been 
radictory 
I  but  the 
however, 
Lved  that 
3  reUgioii 
aider  the 
diiferont 
dignity, 
efs  is  in 
[d  of  the 
Irned. 

;l,  &c. 


CILVPTKR  VIL 


CHARACTER  AND   MORALS. 


rilllE  accounts  which  we  possess  of  the  character  of  savajie 
-L  races  are  both  conflictinj;  and  unsatisfactory.  In  some 
cases  travellers  have  expressed  strong  opinions  for  which 
they  had  obviously  no  sufficient  foundation.  Thus  the  unfor- 
tunate La  Perouse,  who  spent  only  one  day  on  Easter  Island, 
states  his  belief  that  the  inhabitants  *  are  as  corrupt  as  the 
circumstances  in  which  they  are  placed  will  perijiit  them 
to  be.'*  On  the  other  hand,  the  Friendly  Islanders  were 
so  called  by  Captain  Cook  on  account  of  the  apparent 
kindness  and  hospitality  with  which  they  received  him. 
Yet,  as  we  now  know,  this  appearance  of  friendship  was 
entirely  hypocritical.  The  natives  endeavoured  to  lull  him 
into  security,  with  the  intention  of  seizing  his  ship  and 
massacring  the  crew,  which  design  a  fortunate  accident 
alone  prevented  them  from  caiTying  into  effect ;  yet  Captain 
Cook  never  had  the  slightest  suspicion  of  their  treachery, 
or  of  the  danger  which  he  so  narrowly  escaped. 

In  some  cases  the  same  writer  gives  accounts  at 
vai'iance  with  one  another.  Thus  Mr.  Ellis,*  the  excellent 
missionary  of  the  Pacific,  speaking  of  the  Tahitians,  states 
that  their  moral  character  was  '  awfully  dark,  and  not- 
withstanding the  apparent  mildness  of  their  disposition, 
and  the  cheerful  vivacity  of  their  conversation,  no  portion 


'  Perouse's  Voyage,  English  edition,  vol.  ii.  p.  327. 
-  Polyne,si;in  RescHrches,  vol.  ii.  p.  2o. 


srxS 


roNTnADirTor.Y  ACCorxTP. 


of  Ui»3  huniiiii  race  wiis  ovoi-,  iH'iliap.s,  sunk  lowor  in  brutal 
licontiousiioss  aud  moral  clograilatioii.'  Yet,  siK-akiii^^  (»f 
this  same  people,  and  in  the  very  same  volume,  liu 
states  that  they  ■were  most  anxious  to  obtain  Bibles : 
on  the  day  when  they  were  to  be  distributed,  the  natives 
cjnne  from  considerable  distances,  and  *  the  place  was 
actually  thronj^ed  until  the  copies  were  expended.  In 
their  aj^plication  at  our  own  houses,  we  found  it  impossible 
to  restrain  the  people,  so  great  was  their  anxieiy.'  Under 
tliese  circumstances  we  cannot  wonder  that  Captain  Cook 
and  other  navigators  found  in  them  much  to  admire  as 
well  as  to  condemn. 

The  Kalmouks,  again,  have  been  very  differently  described 
by  different  travellers.  Pallas,  speaking  of  their  character, 
says,  *  II  m'a  paru  infiniment  meilleur  que  ne  I'ont  depeint 
plusieurs  de  nos  historiens  voyagenrs.  11  est  infiniment  pre- 
ferable a  celui  des  autres  peuples  nomades.  Les  Kalmouks 
sout  alfables,  hospitallers  et  francs ;  lis  aiment  a  rendre 
service  ;  ils  sont  toujours  gais  et  enjoues,  ce  qui  les  distingue 
des  Kirguis,  qui  sont  bcaucoup  plus  flegmatiques.  Telles 
sont  leurs  bonnes  qualites ;  voici  les  mauvaises.  Ils  sont 
sales,  paresseux  et  fort  ruses  ;  ils  abusent  ti'cs-souvent  de  ce 
dernier  defaut.''  So  also  the  aboriginal  tribes  of  India, 
as  pointed  out  by  M.  Hunter,'^  have  been  painted  in  the 
blackest  colours  by  some,  and  highly  praised  by  others. 

Mariner  gives  an  excellent  account  of  the  state  of  man- 
ners among  the  Tongans,  and  one  which  well  illustrates 
the  difficulty  of  arriving  at  correct  ideas  on  such  a  subject, 
esj)ecially  among  a  people  of  a  different  race  from  ourselves 
and  in  a  diflFerent  state  of  civilisation.  He  describes  them 
as    loyaP    and    pious,'*    obc<lient    children,*'    affectionate 


•  Voyagps,  vol.  i.  p.  499. 

*  Comparative  Dictionary  of  the 
Non-Aryan  Laiiguages  of  India  and 
High  Asia,  pp.  fi,  9. 


'  Loc.  cit.  vol.  ii.  p.  156. 
*  P.  154. 

»  r.  156. 


CONTUADK'TOKV    ACTOrXTS. 


O",*) 

•••)<' 


1  briUal 
kin^  of 
mo,  lu^ 
BibloH  : 
natives 
ICO  ■Nvas 
led.  In 
[possible 

lin  Cook 
Imirc  lis 

Icscribt'd 
luiracter, 
t  depeint 
ment  i)re- 
Caluiouks 
a  rendro 
distingue 
Telles 

lis  SOllt 

\rent  de  cc 
of  India, 
ed  in  the 
^tlicrs. 
e  of  man- 

lustrates 
a  subject, 

ourselves 
ibes  them 

cctionatc 

0. 


parents,'    kind    liusiband.s,'-    modest    and    liiithlul    wives,'"' 
und  true  friends.* 

On  the  other  hand,  they  seem  to  have  little  feeling  of 
morality.     They  have  no  ^ 


3  no  words  fur  justice  or  injustice,  for 
cru'.lty  or  humanity.'  *  Theft,  rcven^^o,  rape,  and  murder 
under  many  circumstances  arc  not  held  to  be  crimes.* 
They  have  no  idea  of  future  rewards  and  punishments. 
They  saw  no  harm  in  seizinj^  ships  by  treachery  and 
iniu'dering  the  crew.  The  men  were  cruel,  treacherous, 
and  revengeful.  Marriages  were  terminable  at  the  whim 
of  the  husband,'''  Jind  excepting  in  married  women  chastity 
was  not  regarded  as  a  virtue,  though  it  was  thought  im- 
proper for  a  woman  frequently  to  change  her  lover.  Yet 
we  are  told  that  on  the  whole,^  this  system,  although 
so  opposed  to  our  feelings,  had  *  not  the  least  appearance 
of  any  bad  effect.  The  women  were  tender  kind  mothers, 
the  children  well  cared  for.*  Both  sexes  appeared  to  bo 
contented  and  happy  in  tlieir  relations  to  each  other,  and 
*  as  to  domestic  quarrels  they  were  seldom  known.'  We 
must  not  judge  them  toohardl}'  for  their  proposed  treachery 
to  Captain  Cook.  Even  in  Northern  Europe  shipwrecks 
were  long  considered  fair  spoil,  the  strifngers  being  con- 
nected with  the  natives  by  no  civil  or  family  ties,  and  the 
idea  of  natural  right  not  being  highly  developed.* 

Lastly,  if  in  addition  to  the  other  sources  of  difficulty, 
wo  remember  that  of  language,  we  cannot  wonder  that  the 
characters  of  savage  races  have  been  so  differently  de- 
scribed by  different  travellers.  We  all  kmw  how  difhcult 
it  is  to  judge  an  individual,  and  it  must  be  much  more  so 
to  judge    a  nation.     In  fact,  whether  any  given  writer 


'  P.  179. 
2  P.  179. 
»  P.  170. 

*  P.  LJ2. 

•  P.  148. 


"  P.  107. 

'  Loc.  c/V.  vol.  ii.  p.  177. 
'  iSpo     Mrmtcsquicii,     ly^rit      dcs 
Lois,  vol.  ii.  p.  119. 


200 


DIFFICULTY   OP   ASCKRTAIMNO 


:    111 


^  111 


W 


m 


pniist's  or  bliimes  ii  pariiciilar  race,  (IcpcndH  at  least  as  iiiucli 
on  tho  character  of  the  writer  as  on  that  of  the  people. 

On  the  whok',  however,  I  think  wo  may  assunio  that 
life  and  property  arc  far  less  secure  in  savage  than  in 
civilised  coninuinities  ;  and  though  the  f:fuilt  of  a  murder 
or  a  theft  may  bo  very  different  under  different  circum- 
stances, to  the  sufferer  the  result  is  much  the  same. 

Mr.  Galbraith,  who  lived  for  many  years,  as  Indian  agent, 
among  the  Sioux  (North  America),  thus  describes  them :' 
They  are  *  bigoted,  barbarous,  and  exceedingly  super- 
stitious. They  regard  most  of  the  vices  as  virtues.  Theft, 
arson,  rape,  and  murder  are  among  them  regarded  as  the 
means  of  distinction ;  and  the  young  Indian  from  child- 
hood is  taught  to  regard  killing  as  the  highest  of  virtues. 
In  their  dances,  and  at  their  feasts,  the  warriors  recite 
their  deeds  of  theft,  pillage,  and  slaughter  as  precious 
things ;  and  the  highest,  indeed  the  only,  ambition  of  a 
young  brave  is  to  secure  "  the  feather,"  which  is  but  a 
record  of  his  having  murdered  or  participated  in  the 
murder  of  some  human  being — whether  man,  woman,  or 
child,  it  is  immaterial;  and,  after  he  has  secured  his 
first  "  feather,"  appetite  is  whetted  to  increase  the  number 
in  his  cap,  as  an  Indian  brave  is  estimated  by  the  number 
of  his  feathers.' 

In  Tahiti  the  missionaries  considered  that  '  not  less  than 
two-thirds  of  the  children  were  murdered  by  their  parents.'* 
Mr.  Ellis  adds,  *  I  do  not  recollect  having  met  with  a 
female  in:  the  islands  during  the  whole  period  of  my  resi- 
dence there,  who  had  been  a  mother  while  idolatry  pre- 
vailed, who  had  not  imbrued  her  hands  in  the  blood  of 
her  offsj^ring.'     Mr.  Nott  also  makes  the  same  assertion. 

•  Ethn.  Journal,  1860,  p.  30 i. 

'  Polynesian  Rescr.rchos,  vol.  i.  pp.  334,  310. 


\ 


THK   CIIAIIACTER   OP    SAVAOK    HACKS. 


2<;i 


(Jills   were   more   often   killed   than  boys,  because    Uny 
were  of  less  use  in  fishinf''  and  in  war. 

Mr.  Wallace  maintains  that  savn^es  net  up  to  their 
simple  moral  code  at  least  as  well  as  wo  do  ;  but  if  a  man's 
simple  moral  code  peniiits  him  to  rob  or  murder,  ihat  nv.iy 
be  some  excuse  for  him,  but  it  is  little  consolation  to  the 
sufferer. 

As  a  philosophical  question,  however,  the  relative  chji- 
ractcr  of  different  races  is  less  interesting^  than  their  moral 
condition. 

Mr.  Wallace,  in  the  concluding  chapter  of  his  interest  inf,' 
work  on  the  Malay  Archipelago,  has  expressed  the  opinion 
that  while  civilised  communities  *  have  progressed  vastly 
beyond  the  savage  state  in  intellectual  achievements,  we 
have  not  advanced  eqnally  in  morals.'  Nay,  ho  evon  goes 
further :  in  a  perfect  social  state,  he  says,  *  every  man 
would  have  a  sufficiently  well-balanced  intellectual  organi- 
sation  to  understand  the  moral  law  in  all  its  details,  and 
would  require  no  other  motive  but  the  free  impulses  of  his 
own  nature  to  obey  that  law.  Now,  it  is  very  remarkable 
that  among  people  in  a  very  low  stage  of  civilisation,  we 
find  some  api)roach  to  such  a  perfect  social  state  ; '  and  ho 
adds,  *it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  the  mass  of  our 
populations  have  not  at  all  advanced  beyond  the  savage 
code  of  morals,  and  have  in  many  cases  sunk  below  it.' 

Far  from  thinking  this  true,  I  should  rather  be  dispos(}d 
to  say  that  Man  has,  perhaps,  made  more  progress  in 
moral  than  in  either  material  or  intellectual  advancement ; 
for  while  even  the  lowest  savages  have  many  material  and 
intellectual  attainments,  they  are,  it  seems  to  me,  almost 
entirely  wanting  in  moral  feeling,  though  I  am  aware  that 
the  contrary  opinion  has  been  expressed  by  many  eminent 
authorities. 


■•^  ^?i 


!«  *♦  '. 


'<  "It* 


Hi 

wwW  1. 

Hill 

i 

Oi'O 


pno(jui;ss  in  mohalr. 


TliiiH  Tionl  Kiiuu's'  assumos  jis  an  uiuloubltMl  fad  '  that 
uvcry  individual  is  endued  with  a  sonsc  of  rijjfht  »and  \vn)ii<,% 
nion;  or  less  distinct ;' and  after  admitting  that  very 
different  views  as  to  morals  are  held  by  different  pco|)lo 
and  dilf 'rent  races,  ho  remarks,  *  these  facta  tend  not  to 
<lisprove  the  reality  of  a  common  sense  in  morals  :  th(»y 
t)iily  i)rove  that  the  moral  sense  has  not  been  equally 
2)erfect  at  all  times,  nor  in  all  countries.* 

Itume  exjiresses  the  same  opinion  in  very  decided 
]any;uay;e.  '  Let  a  man's  insensibility,'  ho  says,  *  be  ever 
HO  great,  he  must  often  be  touched  with  the  images  of 
right  and  wrong ;  and  let  his  prejudices  be  ever  so  obsti- 
nate, he  must  observe  that  others  are  susceptible  of  like 
impressions.'*  Nay  he  even  maintains  that  *  those  who 
have  denied  the  reality  of  moral  distinctions,  may  be 
ranked  among  the  disingenuous  disputants  ;  nor  is  it  con- 
ceivable that  any  human  creature  could  ever  seriously 
believe  that  all  characters  and  actions  wcvo  alike  entitled 
to  the  affection  and  regard  of  every  one.' 

Mr.  Wallace  draws  a  charming  picture  of  some  small 
savage  communities  which  he  has  visited.  Each  man,  he 
says,  *  scrupulously  respects  the  rights  of  his  fellow,  and 
any  infraction  of  those  rights  rarely  or  never  takes  place. 
In  such  a  community  all  are  nearly  equal.  There  are  none 
of  those  wide  distinctions  of  education  and  ignorance, 
wealth  and  poverty,  master  and  servant,  which  are  the 
product  of  our  civilisation ;  there  is  none  of  that  wide- 
spread division  of  labour,  which,  while  it  increases  wealth, 
produces  also  conflicting  interests  ;  there  is  not  that  severe 
competition  and  struggle  for  existence,  or  for  wealth, 
which  the  population  of  civilised  countries  inevitably 
creates.' 


'  History  of  Man,  vol.  ii.  p.  9,  vol. 
iv.  p.  18. 


'  Hume's  Essays,  vol.  ii.  p.  203. 


FAMILY    ATFliCTlON    AND    MoUAL    I'KKLINU.  -Oo 

l)Ut  Joes  tills  prove  lliat  tlu'y  are  in  a  lii|;li  moral  con- 
dition? docs  it  prove  even  that  they  have  any  nioial  sense 
at  all':^  Surely  not.  For  if  it  does,  we  must  e(|ually  en-dit 
rooks  and  bees,  and  most  other  {^rej^arious  aninials,  with 
a  moral  state  higher  than  that  of  civilised  man.  I  would 
not  indeed  venture  to  assert  that  the  ant  or  the  bee  is  not 
possessed  of  moral  feelinj,^s,  but  wc  are  surely  not  in  a  posi- 
tion to  aflirni  it.  In  the  very  passa^n?  quoted,  Mr.  Waliaee 
lias  pointed  outtliat  the  inducements  to  crime  are  in  smsili 
communities  much  less  than  in  populous  countries.  Tlie 
absence  of  crime,  however,  does  not  constitute  virtue,  and, 
without  temptation,  meni  innocence  has  no  nnnit. 

Moreover,  in  small  communities  almost  all  the  members 
are  related  to  one  another,  and  family  affection  j^its  on 
the  appearance  ofviiiuo.  But  thouyh  parental  and  filial 
affection  possesses  a  very  moral  aspect,  they  have  a  totally 
different  orig^in  and  a  distinct  character. 

We  do  not  generally  attribute  moral  feelings  to  qnad- 
rupcds  and  birds,  yet  there  is  perhaps  no  strono\»r  feeling 
than  that  of  the  mother  for  her  offspring.  She  will  submit 
to  any  sacrifices  for  their  welfare,  and  fight  against  almost 
any  odds  for  their  i)rotection.  No  follower  of  Mr.  Darwin 
will  be  surprised  at  this ;  because  for  generation  after 
generation,  those  mothers  in  whom  this  feeling  was  most 
strong  have  had  the  best  chance  of  rearing  their  yoinig. 
It  is  not,  however,  moral  feeling  in  the  strict  sense  of  the 
term  ;  and  she  would  indeed  be  a  cold-hearted  mother  who 
cherished  and  protected  her  infant  only  because  it  was 
right  to  do  so. 

Family  affection  and  moral  feeling  have  indeed  b<;ou 
very  generally  confused  together  by  travellers,  yet  there  is 
some  direct  testimony  which  appears  to  show  that  the 
moral  condition  of  savages  is  really  much  lower  than  has 
been  generally  supposed. 


« 


2Gt 


ABSENCE   OF   MORAL   FEELING. 


Thus,  Mr.  Dove,  speaking  of  tlio  Tasmauians,  asserts 
that  they  were  entirely  -without  any  '  moral  views  and 
impressions.'  , 

Governor  Eyre  says  of  the  Australians  that  *  having  no 
moral  sense  of  what  is  just  and  equitable  in  the  abstract, 
their  only  test  of  propriety  must  in  such  cases  be,  whether 
they  are  numerically  or  physically  strong  enough  to  bravo 
the  vengeance  of  those  whom  they  may  have  provoked,  or 
injured.'  ^ 

'  Conscience,'  says  Burton,  does  not  exist  in  Eastern 
Africa,  and  *  repentance '  expresses  regret  for  missed 
opportunities  of  mortal  crime.  Robbery  constitutes  an 
honourable  man;  murder — the  more  atrocious  the  mid- 
night crime  the  better — makes  the  hero.'* 

The  Yoruba  negroes,  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  accord- 
ing to  the  same  author,^  *  are  covetous,  cruel,  and  wholly 
deficient  in  what  the  civilised  man  calls  conscience ; ' 
though  it  is  right  to  add  that  some  of  his  other  statements 
with  reference  to  this  tribe  seem  opposed  to  this  view. 

Mr.  Neighbors  states,  that  among  the  Comanches  of 
Texas  *no  individual  action  is  considered  a  c^'me,  but 
every  man  acts  for  himself  according  to  his  own  judgment, 
unless  some  superior  power,  for  instance,  that  of  a  popular 
chief,  should  exercise  authority  over  him.  They  believe 
that  when  they  were  created,  the  Great  Spirit  gave  them 
the  privilege  of  a  free  and  unconstrained  use  of  their  in- 
dividual faculties.'* 

Speaking  of  the  Kaffirs,  Mr.  Casalis,  who  lived  for 
twenty-three  years  in  South  Africa,  says ''  that  'morality 
among  these  people  depends  so  entirely  upon  social  order, 

'  Discoveries  in  Central  Australia,  also  vol.  ii.  p.  218. 
vol.  ii.  p.  384.  *  Schoolcraft's  Indian  Tribes,  vol.  ii. 

'^  Burton's  First  Footsteps  in  East  p.  131. 
Africa,  p.  176.  *  The  Basutos,  p.  3n0. 

»  Abbeokiita,  vol.    i.    p.    303.     See 


MORALITY    AND    RELIGION. 


26r, 


asserts 
2WS  and 

iving  no 
abstract, 
wlictlier 
to  bravo 
rokecl,  or 

Eastern 
r  missed 
Ltutes  an 
tlie  mid- 

1,  accord- 
id  wholly 
science ; ' 
tatements 
view, 
mclies  of 

me,  but 
udgment, 
a  popular 

y  believe 
Hve  them 

their  in- 

ived  for 
morality 
ial  order, 

'ribcs,  vol.  ii. 


that  all  political  disorganisation  ia  immediately  followed 
by  a  state  of  degeneracy,  which  the  re-establishment  of 
order  alone  can  rectify.'  •  Tlius  then,  although  their  lan- 
guage contained  words  signifying  most  of  the  virtues,  as 
well  as  the  vices,  it  would  appear  from  the  above  passages 
that  their  moral  quality  was  not  clearly  recognised;  it 
must  be  confessed,  however,  that  the  evidence  is  not  very 
conclusive,  as  Mr.  Casalis,  even  in  the  same  chapter,  ex- 
presses an  opinion  on  the  point  scarcely  consistent  with 
that  quoted  above. 

The  Tongans,  or  Friendly  Islanders,  had  in  many  res- 
pects made  great  advances,  yet  Mariner'  states  that,  *  on  a 
strict  examination  of  their  language,  we  discover  no  words 
Cosentially  expressive  of  some  of  the  higher  qualities  of 
human  merit :  as  virtue,  justice,  humanity,  nor  of  the  con- 
trary, as  vice,  injustice,  cruelty,  &c.  They  have,  indeed, 
expressions  for  these  ideas,  but  they  are  equally  applicable 
to  other  things.  To  express  a  virtuous  or  good  man,  they 
would  say  "  tangata  lille,"  a  good  man,  or  *•  tangata  loto 
lille,"  a  man  with  a  good  mind ;  but  the  word  lille,  good 
(unlike  cur  virtuous)  is  equally  applicable  to  an  axe,  canoe, 
or  anything  else;  again,  they  have  no  word  to  express 
humanity,  mercy,  &c.,  but  afa,  which  rather  means  friend- 
ship, and  is  a  woi\l  of  cordial  salutation.' 

Mr.  Campbell  observe  =:  that  the  Soors  (one  of  the  abori- 
ginal tribes  of  India),  *  while  described  as  small,  mean,  and 
very  .black,  and  like  the  Santals  naturally  harmless,  peace- 
able, and  industrious,  are  also  said  to  be  without  moral 
sense.'  ^ 

Indeed,  I  do  not  remember  a  single  instance  in  which  a 
savage  is  recorded  as  having  shown  any  symptoms  of 
remorse ;  and  almost  the  only  case  I  can  at  this  moment 

•  Tonga  Islands,  vol.  ii.  p.  117. 

»  G.  Campbell.     Tlio  Etlinulogy  of  India,  p.  37. 


'K 


1| 


2GG 


FUTURE    LIFE    NOT   NECESSARILY   CONNECTED 


call  to  mind,  in  wliicli  a  man  belonging  to  one  of  tlio 
lower  races  has  accounted  for  an  act,  by  saying  explicitly 
that  it  was  right,  was  when  Mr.  Ilnnt  asked  a  young 
Fec^jcean  why  he  had  killed  his  mother.' 

It  is  very  clear  that  religion,  except  in  very  advanced 
races,  has  no  moral  aspect  or  influence.  The  deities  are 
almost  invariably  evil. 

In  Feejee*  *  the  names  of  the  gods  indicate  their  charac- 
ters. Thus,  Tunambanga  is  the  adulterer.  Ndauthina 
steals  women  of  rank  and  beauty  by  night  or  torch-light. 
Kumbunavanua  is  the  rioter ;  Mbatimona,  the  brain-cater  ; 
Ravuravu,  the  murderer;  Mainatavasara,  fresh  from  the 
cutting-up  or  slaughter ;  and  a  host  besides  of  the  same 
sort.* 

The  character  of  the  Greek  gods  is  familiar  to  us,  and 
was  anything  but  moral.  Such  Beings  would  certainly 
not  reward  the  good,  or  punish  the  evil.  Hence,  it  is  not 
surprising  that  Socrates  saw  little  connection  between 
ethicv^  and  religion,  or  that  Aristotle  altogether  separated 
morality  from  theology.  Hence  also  we  cannot  be  sur- 
prised to  find  that,  even  when  a  belief  in  a  future  state  has 
dawned  on  the  uncivilised  mind,  it  is  not  at  first  associated 
with  reward  or  punishment. 

The  Australians,  though  they  had  a  vague  belief  in 
ghosts,  and  supposed  that  after  death  thty  become  'v^hite- 
men ;  that,  as  they  say  *  Fall  down  blvickman,  jump  up 
whiteman,'  have  no  idea  of  retributioii,^  The  Guinea 
negroes  *  have  no  idea  of  future  rewards  or  punishments, 
for  the  good  or  ill  actions  of  their  past  life.'  *  Other  negro 
races,  however,  have  more  advanced  ideas  on  the  subject. 

*  The  Tahitians  believe  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  at 
least  its  existence  in  a  separate  state,  and  that  there  are 

>  Wilkes'  Voyage,  p.  95.  s  Voyage  of  the  'Fly,'  vol.  ii.  p.  29. 

'^  Fiji  ai^'l  the  Fijiaus  vol.  i.  p.  218.         *  Losman  loj.  cit.  p.  401, 


Hlliti^.v 


D 


WITH    REWARDS    AND    rUNISIIMENTS. 


2(57 


3  of   tllO 

xplicitly 
L  youii<,' 

,(lvanco(l 
ities  are 

•  charac- 
lautliina 
ch-liglit. 
in-cater ; 
from  tlie 
tlie  same 

o  us,  and 
certainly 
.  it  is  not 

between 
separated 
3  be  sur- 

state  has 
,ssociated 

belief  in 
fie  '.v^liite- 
jump  up 
e  Guinea 
sliments, 
ler  negro 
subject, 
e  soul,  at 
there  are 

ol.  ii.  p.  29. 
■Ul. 


two  situations  of  different  degrees  of  happiness,  somewhat 
analogous  to  our  heaven  and  bell :  the  superi'  r  situation 
they  call  "  Tavirua  Terai,"  the  other  "  Tiahoboo."  Tliey 
do  not,  however,  consider  them  as  places  of  reward  and 
punishment,  but  as  receptacles  for  different  classes ;  tlie 
first  for  their  chiefs  and  principal  people,  the  other  for 
those  of  inferior  rank  ;  for  they  do  not  suppose  that  their 
actions  here  in  the  least  influence  their  future  state,  or 
indeed  that  they  come  under  the  cognizance  of  their  deities 
at  all.  Their  religion,  therefore,  if  it  has  no  influence  upon 
their  morals,  is  at  least  disinterested  :  and  their  expressions 
of  adoration  and  reverence,  whether  by  words  or  actions, 
arise  only  from  a  humble  sense  of  their  own  inferiority, 
and  the  ineffable  excellence  of  divine  perfection.'* 

In  Tonga  and  at  Nukahiva  the  natives  believe  that  their 
chiefs  are  immortal,  but  not  the  common  people.'^  The 
Tonga  people,  says  Mariner,  *  do  not  indeed  believe  in  any 
future  state  of  rewards  and  punishments.'' 

Williams  ■*  tells  us  that  *  offences,  in  Fijian  estimation, 
are  light  or  grave  according  to  the  rank  of  the  offender. 
Murder  by  a  chief  is  less  heinous  than  a  petty  larceny  com- 
mitted by  a  man  of  low  rank.  Only  a  few  crimes  are 
regarded  as  serious  ;  e.g.,  theft,  adultery,  abduction,  witch- 
craft, infringement  of  a  tabu,  disrespect  to  a  chief,  incen- 
diarism, and  treason ;'  and  he  elsewhere  mentions  that  the 
Fijians,^  though  believing  in  a  future  existence,  '  shut  out 
from  it  the  idea  of  any  moral  retribution  in  the  shape  either 
of  reward  or  punishment.'  The  Sumatrans,  according  to 
Marsden, '  had  some  idea  of  a  future  life,  but  not  as  a  state 
of  retribution;  conceiving  immortality  to  be  the  lot  of  a 
rich  rather  than  of  a   <]^ood  man.     I   recollect   that  an 


•  Seo  Cook's  Voyage  round  tlio 
World  in  Il.iwkcs worth's  Voyagos,  toL 
ii.  p.  239. 

'  Klemm,  vol.  iv.  p.  3jl. 


»  Tonga  Islands,  vol.  ii.  pp.  147,  148. 

*  Fiji  and  the  Fijiaus,  vol.  i.  p.  28. 

*  Uid.  p.  243. 


i     r 


£C8 


MORALITY    AND   RELIGION. 


iiiliabitant  of  one  of  tlie  inlands  farther  eastward  observoel 
to  me,  "wiili  g-reat  simplicity,  that  only  great  men  went  to 
the  skies  ;  how  should  poor  men  find  admittance  tliere?  '' 

In  the  Island  of  Bintang,'^  *  the  people  having  an  idea  of 
predestination,  always  conceived  present  po&session  to  con- 
stitute right,  however  that  possession  might  have  been 
ticquired ;  but  yat  they  made  no  scruple  of  deposing  and 
murdering  their  sovereigns,  and  justified  their  acts  by  this 
argument ;  that  the  fate  of  concerns  so  important  as  the 
lives  of  kings  was  in  the  hands  of  God,  whose  vicegerents 
they  were,  and  that  if  it  was  not  agreeable  to  him,  and  the 
consequence  of  his  will,  that  they  should  perish  by  the 
daggers  of  their  subjects,  it  could  not  so  happen.  Thus  it 
appears  that  their  religious  ideas  were  just  strong  enough 
to  banish  from  their  minds  every  moral  sentiment.' 

The  Kookies  of  Chittagong  *  have  no  idea  of  hell  or 
heaven,  or  of  any  punishment  for  evil  deeds,  or  rewards 
for  good  actions. '^  According  to  Bailey,  again,  the  Veddahs 
of  Ceylon  *  have  no  idea  of  a  future  state  of  rewards  and 
punishments.'* 

The  Hos  in  Central  India  *  believe  that  the  souls  of  the 
dead  become  "  bhoots,"  spirits,  but  no  thought  of  reward 
or  punishment  is  connected  with  the  chaaige.'^ 

Speaking  of  South  Africa  Kolben^'  says, '  that  the  Hot- 
tentots believe  the  immortalitv  of  the  soul  has  been  shown 
in  a  foregoing  chapter.  But  they  have  no  r^otion,  that  ever 
I  could  gather,  of  rewards  and  punishments  after  death.' 

Among  the  Mexicans^  and  Peruvians,"  again,  the  religion 


'  Miirsden's  History  of  Sumiiti  i,  p.  p.  38. 
289.  «  History  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 

2  Ibid.  p.  412.  vol.i.  p.  314. 

'  Ronnol,   quoted  in  Lewin's  Hill         »  Miillcr.Gcs.dcrAmcr.  Urreligion., 

Tracts  of  Cliittagonf?,  p.  110.  p.  5G5, 

*  Trans.  Ethn.  Soc.  N.S.,  vol.  ii.  p.         »  Ihid.T^.  410.  But  sec  Prescott,  v',1. 

300.  i.  p.  83. 

»  Dalton,  Trans.  Ethn.  Soc,  18G8, 


*^\ 


LAW    AND    KIGIIT. 


2G0 


i,   I 


)bscrvo(l 
wont  to 
there?'' 

I  idea  of 

II  to  con- 
.ve  been 
sing  and 
s  by  this 
t  aa  tlie 
icgerents 
,  and  the 
ti  by  the 

Thus  it 
y  enough 
b.' 

►f  hell  or 

•  rewards 

1  Veddahs 

ards  and 

lis  of  the 
if  reward 

Ithe  Ilot- 

|en  shown 

that  ever 

death.' 

|e  religion 

Good  Hope, 
,  TJrreligion., 
'rescott,  v'/l. 


was  entirely  independent  of  moral  considerations,  and  in 
some  other  parts  of  America  the  future  condition  is  sup- 
posed to  depend  not  on  conduct,  but  on  rank.*  In  North 
America  '  it  is  rare,'  says  Tanner,  *  to  observe  among  the 
Indians  any  ideas  which  would  lead  to  the  belief  that 
they  look  upon  a  future  state  as  one  of  retribution.''^ 

The  Arabs  conceive  that  a  broken  oath  bi'ings  misfortune 
on  the  place  where  it  was  uttered.^ 

In  fact,  I  believe  that  the  lower  races  of  men  may  bo 
said  to  be  deficient  in  any  idea  of  right,  though  quite 
familiar  with  that  of  law.  This  leads  to  some  curious, 
tliough  not  illogical  results.  Thus  at  Jenna,'*  and  in  the 
surrounding  districts,  '  whenever  a  town  is  deprived  of  its 
chief,  the  inhabitants  acknowledge  no  law — anarchy, 
troubles,  and  confusion  immediately  prevail,  and  till  a 
successor  is  appointed  all  labour  is  at  an  end.  The 
stronger  oppress  the  weak,  and  consummate  every  species 
of  crime,  without  being  amenable  to  any  tribunal  for  th  jir 
actions.  Private  property  is  no  longer  respected;  and 
thus  before  i\  person  arrives  to  curb  its  licentiousness,  a 
town  is  not  unfrequently  reduced  from  a  flourishing 
state  of  prosperity  and  of  happiness  to  all  the  horrors  of 
desolation.' 

That  there  should  be  any  races  of  men  so  deficient  in 
moral  feeling,  was  altogether  opposed  to  the  preconceived 
ideas  with  which  I  commenced  the  study  of  savage  life, 
and  1  have  arrived  at  the  conviction  by  slow  degrees,  and 
even  with  reluctance.  I  have,  however,  been  forced  to 
this  conclusion,  not  only  by  the  direct  statements  of 
travellers,  but  also  by  the  general  tenor  of  their  remar!:s, 


'  Muller.Gcs.desAmcr.  Urreligion.,  p.  190. 
p.  139.     See  also  pp.  289,  5G,5.  ■•  II.  and  J.  Lander's  Niger  E\pcdi. 

-  Tanner's  Narrative,  p.  369.  tiun,  vol.  i.  p.  96. 
"  Kleram,  Culturgesehichte,  vol.  iv. 


',  i 


'  'i 


m 


f  •  ii 


11 


270 


OIIIGIN    OF    ilOKAL    FEELING. 


and  especiiilly  by  tlio  romarkabl(3  absence  of  repentance 
and  remorse  among  the  lower  races  of  men. 

On  the  whole,  then,  it  appears  to  me  that  the  moral 
feelings  deepen  with  the  gradual  growth  of  a  race. 

External  circumstances,  no  doubt,  exercise  much  in- 
fluence on  character.  We  very  often  see,  however,  tliat 
the  possession  of  one  virtue  is  counterbalanced  by  some 
corresponding  defect.  Thus  the  North  American  Indians 
are  brave  and  generous,  but  they  are  also  cruel  and  reck- 
less of  life.  Moreover,  in  the  early  stages  of  law,  motive 
is  never  considered ;  a  fact  which  shows  how  little  hold 
morality  once  had  even  on  communities  which  have  made 
considerable  progress.  Some  cases  which  have  been  quoted 
as  illustrating  the  contrast  between  the  ideas  of  virtue  en- 
tertained by  different  races  seem  to  prove  the  absence, 
rather  than  the  perversity,  of  sentiment  on  the  subj_ect. 
I  cannot  believe,  for  instance,  that  theft  and  murder  have 
ever  been  really  regarded  as  virtues.  In  a  barbarous 
state  they  were,  no  doubt,  means  of  distinction,  and 
in  the  absence  of  moral  feelings  were  regarded  with  no 
reprobation.  I  cannot,  however,  suppose  that  they  could 
be  considered  as  *  ri^ht,'  though  they  might  give  rise  to  a 
feeling  of  respect,  and  even  of  admiration.  So  also  the 
Greeks  regarded  the  duplicity  of  Ulysses  as  an  element 
in  his  greatness,  but  surely  not  as  a  virtue  in  itself. 

What,  then,  is  the  origin  of  moral  feeling?  Some  regard 
it  as  intuitive,  as  an  original  instinct  implanted  in  the 
human  mind.  Herbert  Spencer,'  on  the  contrary,  main- 
tains that  *  moral  intuitions  are  the  results  of  accumulated 
experiences  of  utility ;  gradually  organised  and  inherited, 
they  have  come  to  be  quite  independent  of  conscious 
experience.  Just  in  the  same  way  that  I  believe  the 
intuition  of  space,  possessed  by  any  living  individual,  to 

'  Baiu's  Moutal  and  Moral  Science,  p.  722. 


OEIGIN    OF   MORAL    FEELING. 


271 


I 


)Ciitaiice 
10  inoriil 


lucli  in- 
rer,  tluit 
by  some 
1  Indiiing 
iiid  reck- 
V,  motive 
ittle  hold 
Lve  made 
ill  quoted 
drtue  en- 
absence, 
subiect. 
rder  have 
)arbarous 
ion,   and 
with  no 
ley  conld 
rise  to  a 
also  the 
1  element 
If. 

le  regard 
d  in  the 
rv,  main- 
umulated 
nherited, 
conscious 
licve  the 
ridual,  to 


have  arisen  Ironi  organised  and  consuliJatcd  ex[»erlences 
of  all  antecedent  individuals,  Avho  bequeathed  to  him  their 
slowly-developed  nervous  organisation  ;  just  as  I  believe 
that  this  intuition,  requiring  only  to  be  made  definite  and 
complete  by  personal  experiences,  has  practically  become 
a  form  of  thought  apparently  quite  independent  of  ex- 
perience ;  so  do  I  believe  that  the  experiences  of  utility, 
organised  and  consolidated  through  all  past  generations  of 
the  human  race,  have  been  producing  corresponding  ner- 
vous modifications,  which,  by  continued  transmission  and 
accumulation,  have  become  in  us  certain  faculties  of  moral 
intuition— certain  emotions  responding  to  right  and  wrong 
conduct,  which  have  no  apparent  basis  in  the  individual 
experiences  of  utility.' 

I  cannot  entirely  subscribe  to  either  of  these  views.  The 
moral  feelings  are  now,  no  doubt,  intuitive,  but  if  the  lower 
races  of  savages  have  none,  they  evidently  cannot  havo 
been  so  originally  iior  can  they  be  regarded  as  natural  to 
man.  Neither  can  I  accept  the  opposite  theory  ;  while 
entirely  agreeing  with  Mr.  Spencer  that  '  there  have  been, 
and  still  are,  developing  in  the  race,  certain  fundamental 
moral  intuitions,'  I  feel,  with  Mr.  Hutton,  much  difficulty 
in  conceiving  that,  in  Mr.  Spencer's  words,  *  these  moral 
intuitions  are  the  results  of  the  accumulated  experiences 
of  Utility,'  that  is  to  say,  of  Utility  to  the  individual.  It 
is  evident,  indeed,  that  feelings  acting  on  generation  after 
generation  might  produce  a  continually  deepening  convic- 
tion, but  I  fail  to  perceive  how  this  explains  the  ditferenco 
between  *  right'  and  *  utility.'  Yet  utility  in  one  sense 
has,  I  think,  been  naturally  and  yet  unconsciously  selected 
as  the  basis  of  morals.  Mr.  Hutton,  if  I  understand  him 
correctly,  doubts  this. 

Honesty,  for  instance,  he  says,'   *  must  certainly  havo 

'  jMacmillan's  Mngazine,  18G9,  p.  271. 


I    I 


272 


ORIGIN    OF    MORAL    FEELING. 


H      li 


been  associated  by  oiir  ancestors  with  many  unhappy  as 
well  as  many  happy  consequences,  and  wo  know  that  in 
ancient  Greece  dishonesty  was  oj^enly  and  actually  as- 
sociated with  happy  consequences,  in  the  admiration  for 
the  guile  and  craft  of  Ulysses.  Hence  the  moral  associ- 
ations slowly  formed,  according  to  Mr.  Spencer,  in  favour 
of  honesty,  must  have  been,  in  fact,  a  mere  predominance 
of  association  with  a  balance  on  one  side.' 

This  seems  to  me  a  good  crucial  case.  Honesty,  on  their 
own  part,  may,  indeed,  have  been,  and  no  doubt  was,  *  as- 
sociated by  our  ancestors  with  many  unhappy,  as  well  as 
many  happy  consequences  ; '  but  honesty  on  the  part  of 
others  could  surely  have  nothing  but  happy  consequences. 
Thus,  while  the  perception  that  *  Honesty  is  the  best  policy ' 
was,  no  doubt,  as  Mr.  Hutton  observes,  *long  subsequent 
to  the  most  imperious  enunciation  of  its  sacredness  as  a 
duty,'  honesty  would  be  recognised  as  a  virtue  so  soon  as 
men  perceived  the  sacredness  of  any  duty.  As  soon  as 
contracts  were  entered  into  between  individuals  or  states, 
it  became  manifestly  the  interest  of  each  that  the  other 
should  be  honest.  Any  failure  in  this  respect  would 
naturally  be  condemned  by  the  sufferer.  It  is  precisely 
because  honesty  is  sometimes  associated  with  unhappy  con- 
sequences, that  it  is  regarded  as  a  virtue.  If  it  had  always 
been  directly  advantageous  to  all  parties,  it  would  have 
been  classed  as  useful,  not  as  right ;  it  would  have  lacked 
the  essential  element  which  renders  it  a  virtue. 

Or  take  respect  for  Age.  We  find,  even  in  Australia, 
laws,  if  I  may  so  term  them,  appropriating  the  best  of 
everything  to  the  old  men.  Naturally  the  old  men  lose  no 
opportunity  of  impressing  these  injunctions  on  the  young  ; 
they  praise  those  who  conform,  and  condemn  those  who 
resist.  Hence  the  custom  is  strictly  adhered  to.  I  do 
not   say,    that   to   the   Australian   mind,   this    presents 


'»!  "'■»)" 


ORIGIN   OF    MORAL    FKELINO. 


liappy  fis 
V  tluit  in 
ually  as- 
atiou  for 
al  assoei- 
in  favour 
ominance 

',  on  tlic'ir 
was,  *  as- 
is  well  as 
e  part  of 
lequences. 
}st  policy ' 
abseqnent 
dness  as  a 
so  soon  as 
s  soon  as 
or  states, 
lie  other 
ct  would 
precisely 
appy  con- 
ad  always 
ould  liave 
ive  lacked 

Australia, 
le  best  of 
en  lose  no 
le  young ; 
hose  who 
to.  I  do 
presents 


itself  as  a  sacred  duty,  but  it  would  I  thin]<  i.i  the  courso 
of  time  have  come  to  be  so  considered. 

For  when  a  race  had  made  some  progress  in  intellec- 
tual development,  a  difference  would  certainlj'  be  frit 
between  those  acts  which  a  man  was  tau<^ht  to  do  as  con- 
ducive  to  his  own  direct  advantage,  and  those  which 
were  not  so,  and  yet  which  were  enjoined  for  any  other 
reason.  Hence  would  arise  the  idea  of  right  and  dnti/,  as 
distinct  from  mere  utility. 

How  much  more  our  notions  of  right  depend  on  the 
lessons  we  receive  when  young  than  on  hereditary  ideas, 
becomes  evident  if  we  consider  the  different  moral  codes 
existing  in  our  own  country.  Nay,  even  in  the  very  same 
individual  two  contradictory  systems  may  often  be  seen 
side  by  side  in  incongruous  association.  Thus  the 
Christian  code  and  the  ordinary  code  of  honour  seem 
to  be  opposed  in  some  respects,  yet  the  great  majority  of 
men  hold,  or  suppose  that  they  hold,  them  both. 

Lastly  it  may  be  observed  tnat  in  our  own  case  religion 
and  morality  are  closely  connected  together.  Yet  the 
sacred  character,  which  forms  an  integral  part  in  our  con- 
ception of  duty,  could  not  arise  until  Religion  became 
moral.  Nor  would  this  take  place  until  the  Deities  were 
conceived  to  be  beneficent  beings.  As  soon,  however,  as  this 
was  the  case,  they  would  naturally  be  supposed  to  regard 
with  approbation  all  that  tended  to  benefit  their  wor- 
shippers, and  to  condemn  all  actions  of  the  opposite 
character.  This  step  v^z,s  an  immense  benefit  to  mankind, 
since  that  dread  of  the  unseen  powers  which  had  previously 
been  wasted  on  the  production  of  mere  ceremonies  and 
sacrifices,  at  once  invested  the  moral  feelings  with  a 
sacredness,  and  consequently  with  a  force,  which  they  had 
not  until  then  possessed. 

Authority,  then,  seems  to  me  the   origin,  and  utility, 

13 


ii 

i  i] 


274 


Or.IGIN    OF   MOTIAL   FEELING. 


thoiig^li  not  in  the  niannor  suggested  by  Mr.  8i)encer,  the 
criterion,  of  virtue.  Mr.  llutton,  however,  in  the  conclud- 
ing i)aragraph  of  his  interesting  paper,  urges  that  surely 
by  this  time  *  sonic  07ic  elementary  moral  law  should  be  as 
deeply  ingrained  in  human  practice  as  the  geometrical 
law  that  a  straight  line  is  the  shortest  way  between  two 
points.  Which  of  them  is  it  ? '  I  see  no  such  necessity. 
A  child  whose  i)arent3  belong  to  different  nations,  with 
different  moral  codes,  would,  I  suppose,  have  tlie  moral 
feeling  deep,  and  yet  might  be  without  any  settled  ideas 
as  to  particular  moral  duties.  And  this  is  in  reality  our 
own  case.  Our  ancestors  have,  now  for  many  generations, 
had  a  feeling  that  some  actions  were  right  and  some  were 
wrong,  but  at  different  times  they  have  had  very  different 
codes  of  morality.  Hence  we  have  a  deeply-seated  moral 
feeling,  and  yet,  as  anyone  who  has  children  may  satisfy 
himself,  no  such  decided  moral  code.  Children  have  a 
deep  feeling  of  right  and  wrong,  but  no  such  decided  or 
intuitive  conviction  which  actions  are  right  and  which  are 
wrong. 


t 


uccr,  the 
conclud- 
lat  surely 
uld  be  as 
o  metrical 
ween  two 
necessity, 
ons,  with 
the  moral 
:tle(l  ideas 
-eality  our 
'iierations, 
some  were 
y  different 
ated  moral 
lay  satisfy 
:en  have  a 
decided  or 
which  are 


CHAPTER  YHT. 


LANGUAGE. 


ALTIIOUGII  it  has  been  at  various  times  stated  that 
certain  savage  tribes  arc  entirely  without  language, 
none  of  these  accounts  appear  to  be  well  authenticated,  and 
they  are  a  priori  extremely  improbable. 

At  any  rate,  even  the  lowest  races  of  which  we  have  any 
satisfactory  account  possess  a  language,  imperfect  though 
it  may  be,  and  eked  out  to  a  great  extent  by  signs.  I  do 
not  suppose,  however,  that  this  custom  has  arisen  from  the 
absence  of  words  to  represent  their  ideas,  but  rather 
because  in  all  countries  inhabited  by  savages  the  number 
of  languages  is  very  great,  and  hence  there  is  a  great  ad- 
vantage in  being  able  to  communicate  by  signs. 

Thus  James,  in  his  expedition  to  the  Eocky  Mountains, 
speaking  of  the  Kiawa-Kaskaia  Indians,  says,  'These 
nations,  although  constantly  associating  together  and 
united  under  the  influence  of  the  Bear-Tooth,  are  yet 
totally  ignorant  of  each  other's  language,  insomuch  that 
it  was  no  uncommon  occurrence  to  see  two  individuals  of 
different  nations  sitting  upon  the  ground,  and  conversing 
freely  by  means  of  the  language  of  signs.  In  the  art  of 
thus  conveying  their  ideas  they  were  thorough  adepts ;  and 
their  manual  display  was  only  interrupted  at  remote  inter- 
vals by  a  smile,  or  by  the  auxiliary  of  an  articulated  word 
of  the  language  of  the  Crow  Indians,  which  to  a  very 


*TI  I 


■    I 


J'L 


270 


ct:sturk  language. 


limited  extent  passes  current  ainonpf  them.' '  Fisher,'  also, 
Rpealvinf]f  of  the  Comanehes  aiul  various  surroundings  tribes, 
says  that  they  have  *a  lanj^uaj^o  of  sijjns,  however,  by 
which  all  Indians  and  traders  can  understand  one  another ; 
and  they  always  make  these  sij^'us  when  communicating^ 
amonj^  themselves.  The  men,  when  conversing  toj^'ether, 
in  their  lodges,  sit  upon  skins,  cross-legf^ed  like  a  Turk, 
and  speak  and  make  sij^ns  in  corroboration  of  what  they 
say,  with  their  hands,  so  that  either  a  blind  or  a  deaf  man 
could  understand  them.  For  instance,  I  meet  an  Indian, 
and  wish  to  ask  him  if  he  saw  six  wa;^«^on3  drawn  by 
horned  cattle,  with  three  Mexican  and  three  American 
teamsters,  and  a  man  mounted  on  horsebiick.  I  make  these 
signs: — I  point  "you,"  then  to  his  eyes,  meaning  "  see;  " 
then  hold  up  all  my  fingers  on  the  right  hand  and  the  fore 
finger  on  the  left,  meaning  **  six ; "  then  I  make  two  circles 
by  bri  ging  the  ends  of  my  thumbs  and  forefingers 
together,  and,  holding  my  two  hands  out,  move  my  wrists 
in  such  a  way  as  to  indicate  waggon  wheels  revolving,  mean- 
ing "waggons;"  then,  by  making  an  upward  motion  with 
each  hand  from  both  sides  of  my  head,  I  indicate  "  horns," 
signifying  horned  cattle ;  then  by  first  holding  up  three 
fingers,  and  then  by  placing  my  extended  right  hand  below 
my  lower  lip  and  moving  it  downward  stopping  in  midway 
down  the  chest,  I  indicate  "  beard,"  meaning  Mexican ;  and 
with  three  fingers  again,  and  passing  my  right  hand  from 
left  to  right  in  front  of  my  forehead,  I  indicate  "  white 
brow "  or  "  pale  face."  I  then  hold  up  my  fore  finger, 
meaning  one  man,  and  by  placing  the  fore  finger  of  my 
left  hand  between  the  fore  and  second  finger  of  my  right 
hand,  representing  a  man  astride  of  a  horse,  and  by  moving 
my  hands  up  and  down  give  the  motion  of  a  horse  gallop- 

'  See   James's    Expedition    to   the        '  Trans.   Ethn.   Soc.   18G9,   vol.   i. 
Kooky  Mountains,  vol.  iii.  p.  62.  p.  283. 


OESTURE    LANClUAOn. 


277 


( 


or,*  also, 
II pr  irilx's, 
vevcr,  by 
another ; 
unicatin*; 
to^ji'tlu'r, 
0  a  Turk, 
A-hut  they 
,  (leaf  man 
xn  Incliaii, 
drawn  by 
American 
make  these 


>^{,' 


<( 


see; 


»> 


nd  the  fore 
two  circles 
forefingers 
3  my  wrists 
ving,  mean- 
notion  with 
te  "  horns," 
cf  up  three 
hand  below 
in  midway 
exican ;  and 
t  hand  from 
■ate  "white 
fore  finger, 
inger  of  my 
of  my  right 
d  by  moving 
lorse  gallop- 

)C.   1869,   vol.   i. 


ing  with  a  man  on  his  back.  I  in  this  way  ask  tlie  Indian, 
*'  You  see  six  wairurons,  hoiiu'd  cattle,  threes  ^rexicans,  three 


'nr> 


Americans,  one  man  on  horse-back  i* "  If  he  holds  up  his 
fore  finger  and  lowers  it  qniekly,  as  if  ho  was  pointing  at 
some  object  on  the  ground,  he  means  "  Yes ;"  if  he  moves  it 
from  side  to  side,  npon  the  principle  that  people  sometimes 
move  their  head  from  side  to  side,  he  means  "  No."  The 
time  required  to  make  these  signs  woidd  bo  about  the  same 
as  if  you  asked  the  question  verbally.'  The  Bushmen  also 
are  said  to  intersperse  their  language  with  so  many  signs 
that  they  are  unintelligible  in  the  dark,  and  avIkmi  they 
want  to  converse  at  night,  are  compelled  to  collect  round 
their  camp  fires.  So  also  Burton  tells  us  that  thoArapahos 
of  North  America,  *  who  possess  a  very  scanty  vocabulary, 
can  hardly  converse  with  one  another  in  the  dark ;  to  Tuake 
a  stranger  understand  them  they  nmst  always  repair  to  tho 
camp  fire  for  pow  wow.'' 

A  very  interesting  account  of  the  sign-language,  espe- 
cially with  reference  to  that  used  by  tho  deaf  and  dumb, 
is  contained  in  Tyler's  *  Early  History  of  Man.'  But 
although  signs  may  serve  to  convey  ideas  in  a  manner 
which  would  probably  surprise  those  who  have  not  studied 
this  question ;  still  it  must  be  admitted  that  they  are  far 
inferior  to  the  sounds  of  the  voice;  which,  as  already 
mentioned,  are  used  for  this  purpose  by  all  the  races  of  men 
with  whom  we  are  acquainted. 

Language,  as  it  exists  among  all  but  the  lowest  races, 
although  far  from  perfect,  is  yet  so  rich  in  terms,  and 
possesses  in  its  grammar  so  complex  an  organisation,  that 
we  cannot  wonder  at  those  who  have  attributed  to  it  a 
divine  and  miraculous  origin.  Nay,  their  view  may  be 
admitted  as  correct,  but  only  in  that  sense  in  which  a  ship 

»   City  of  the  Saints,  p.  151. 


■   '"i 

i' 


li 


278 


THE   ORIGIN   OF   LANGUAGE. 


m 


P. 


i'.  ? 


1,1  i 


or  a  palace  may  be  so  termed :  they  are  human  insofar  as 
they  have  been  worked  out  by  man ;  divine,  inasmuch  as 
in  doing  so  he  has  availed  himself  of  the  powers  which 
Providence  has  given  him.* 

M.  Eenan'^  draws  a  distinction  between  the  origin  of 
words  and  that  of  language,  and  as  regards  the  latter,  says  : 
*Je  persiste  done,  apres  dix  ans  de  nouvelles  etudes,  a 
envisager  le  langage  comme  forme  d'un  seul  coup,  et 
comme  sorti  instantanement  du  genie  de  chaque  race,'  a 
theory  which  involves  that  of  the  plurality  of  human 
species.  No  doubt  the  complexity  and  apparent  perfection 
of  the  granimar  among  very  low  races,  is  at  first  sight  very 
surprising,  but  we  must  remember  that  the  language  of 
children  is  more  regular  than  ours.  A  child  says,  *I  goed,' 
*  I  comed,'  badder,  baddest,  &c.  Moreover  the  preservation 
of  a  complicated  system  of  grammar  among  savage  tribes 
shows  that  such  a  system  is  natural  to  them,  and  not 
merely  a  survival  from  more  civilised  times.  Indeed,  we 
know  that  the  tendency  of  civilisation  is  towards  the  sim- 
plification of  grammatical  forms. 

Nor  must  it  by  any  means  be  supposed  that  complexity 
implies  excellence,  or  even  completeness,  in  a  language. 
On  the  contrary,  it  often  arises  from  a  cumbersome  mode 
of  supplying  some  radical  defect.  Adam  Smith  long  ago 
pointed  out  that  the  verb  '  to  be '  is  *  the  most  abstract  and 
metaphysical  of  all  verbs ;  and  consequently  could  by  no 
means  be  a  word  of  early  invention.'  And  he  suggests  that 


'  Lord  Monboddo  in  combating 
those  who  regard  livnguago  as  a  reve- 
lation, expresses  a  hope  that  he  will  not, 
on  that  account,  be  supposed  to  '  pay 
no  respect  to  the  account  given  in  our 
sacred  books  of  the  origin  of  our  species; 
but  it  does  not  belong  to  me,'  he  adds, 
'as  a  philosopher  or  grammarian; 
to  enquire  whether  such  account  is  to 
be  understood  uUegoricallj',  according 


to  the  opinions  of  some  divines.'  lie 
forgot s,  however,  that  those  who  regard 
language  as  a  revelation,  do  so  in  the 
teeth  of  the  express  statement  in  Gene- 
sis that  God  brought  the  animals 
'  unto  Adam  to  see  vhat  he  would  call 
them:  and  whatsoever  Adam  called 
every  living  creature,  that  was  the  name 
thereof.' 
2  De  rOrigiue  du  Langage,  p.  16. 


I     ,1 


THE   ORIGIN   OP   LANGUAGE. 


270 


nsofar  as 
smiich  as 
ers  which 

origin  of 

tter,  says : 

etudes,  a 

coup,  et 

le  race,'  a 

of  human 

perfection 

sight  very 

nguage  of 

3,*Igoecl,' 

reservation 

vage  tribes 

n,  and  not 

Indeed,  we 

is  the  sim- 

complexity 
,  language, 
some  mode 
long  ago 
3stract  and 
3uld  by  no 
.orp-osts  that 

3  divines.'  He 
lose  who  regard 
u,  do  so  in  tiio 
iMnent  in  Geno- 
t  the  animals 
it  he  would  call 
•  Adam  called 
at  was  the  name 

ngage,  p.  16. 


:e 


the  absence  of  this  verb  probably  led  to  the  intricacy  of  co'i- 
jugations.  *  When '  he  adds,  *  it  came  to  be  invented,  how- 
ever, as  it  had  a,ll  the  tenses  and  modes  of  any  otliei-  verb, 
by  being  joined  with  the  passive  participle,  it  was  capable 
of  supplying  the  place  of  the  whole  passive  voice,  and  of 
rendering  this  part  of  their  conjugations  as  simple  and 
uniform,  as  the  use  of  prepositions  had  rendered  their 
declensions.'  ^  He  goes  on  to  point  out  that  the  same  re- 
marks apply  also  to  the  possessive  verb  *  I  have,'  which 
affected  the  active  voice,  as  profoundly  as  *  I  am '  influenced 
the  passive;  thus  these  two  verbs  between  them,  when 
once  suggested^  enabled  mankind  to  relieve  their  memories, 
and  thus  unconsciously,  but  most  effectually,  to  simplify 
their  grammar. 

In  English  we  carry  the  same  principle  much  further, 
and  not  only  use  the  auxiliary  verbs  *  to  have '  and  *  to  be,' 
but  also  several  others — as  do,  did ;  will,  would ;  shall, 
should ;  can,  could ;  may,  might.'  Adam  Smith  was, 
however,  mistaken  in  supposing  that  the  verb  *  to  be ' 
exists  *in  every  la,nguage ;  *  ^  on  the  contrary,  the  complexity 
of  the  North  American  languages  is  in  a  great  measure 
due  to  its  absence.  The  auxiliary  verb  *  to  be '  is  en- 
tirely absent  in  most  American  languages,  and  the  conse- 
quence is  that  they  turn  almost  all  their  adjectives  and 
nouns  into  verbs,  and  conjugate  them,  through  all  the 
tenses,  persons,  and  moods."* 

Again,  the  Esquimaux,  instead  of  using  adverbs,  conju- 
gate the  verb  ;  they  have  special  terminations  implying  ill, 
better,  rarely,  hardly,  faithfully,  &c. ;  hence  such  a  word 
as  aglekkigiartorasuarniarpok,  ^he  goes  away  hastily  and 
exerts  himself  to  write.'  ^ 

■  Smith's  Moral  Sentiments,  vol.  ii.  *  See  Gallatin,  Trans.  Amor.  Antiq. 

p.  426.  Soc,  vol.  ii.  p.  176. 

»  Smith,  loc.  cit.  p.  432.  *  Crantz,  His.  of  Greenland,  vol.  i. 

"  Loc.  cit.  p.  4-J6.  p.  22-4. 


i: 


280 


rvOOT-"u*or.DS. 


M^' 


\' 


n\  \ 


The  number  of  words  in  tlio  langnng-es  of  civilised  races 
is  no  doubt  immense.  Chinese,  fjr  instance,  contains 
40,000;  Todd's  edition  of  Johnson,  58,000;  Webster's 
Dictionary,  70,000 ;  and  Flugel's  more  than  G.>,000.'  The 
f^reat  majority  of  these,  however,  can  be  derived  from  cer- 
tain original  words,  or  roots,  which  are  very  few  in  number. 
In  Chinese  there  are  about  450,  Hebrew  has  been  reduced 
to  500,  and  Miiller  doubts  whether  there  are  more  in 
Sanskrit.  M.  D'Orsey  even  assures  us  that  an  ordinary 
agricultural  labourer  has  not  300  words  in  his  vocabulary. 

Professor  Max  Miiller'*  observes,  that  *  this  fact  simplifies 
immensely  the  problem  of  the  origin  of  language.  It  has 
taken  away  all  excuse  for  those  rapturous  descriptions  of 
language  which  invariably  i)receded  the  argument  that 
language  must  have  a  divine  origin.  We  shall  hear  no 
more  of  that  wonderful  instrument  which  can  express  all 
we  see,  and  hear,  and  taste,  and  touch,  and  smell ;  which 
is  the  breathing  image  of  the  whole  world ;  which  gives 
form  to  the  airy  feelings  of  our  souls,  and  body  to  the 
loftiest  dreams  of  our  imagination ;  which  can  arrange  in 
accurate  perspective  the  past,  the  present,  and  the  futur:-, 
and  throw  over  everything  the  varying  hues  of  certainty, 
of  doubt,  of  contingency.' 

This,  indeed,  is  no  new  view,  but  was  that  generally 
adopted  by  the  philologists  of  the  last  century,  and  is  fully 
borne  out  by  more  recent  researches. 

In  considering  the  origin  of  these  root-words,  we  must 
remember  that  most  of  them  are  very  ancient,  and  much 
worn  by  use.  This  greatly  enhances  Ihe  difficulty  of  the 
problem. 

Nevertheless,  there  are  several  large  classes  of  words  with 
reference  to  the  origin  of  which  there  can  be  no  doubt. 

'  Sjiturday  Eevicw,  Novcniler  2,  18C1.     Lectures  on  Limgiiage,  p.  2G8. 
'  Loc.  cit.  p.  359. 


ONOMATOPOEIA. 


281 


^1 


scd  races 
contains 
Webster's 
10.'     The 
from  cer- 
1  number, 
n  reduced 
more  in 
ordinary 
Dcabulary. 
simplifies 
3.     It  has 
:iptions  of 
ment  that 
ill  hear  no 
express  all 
ell;  which 
tiich  gives 
)dy  to  the 
arrange  in 
the  futuij, 
*  certainty, 

generally 
md  is  fully 

s,  we  must 
and  much 
ulty  of  the 

words  with 
no  doubt. 


Many  names  of  animals,  such  as  cuckoo,  crow,  p3C  wit,  &c., 
are   evidently  derived   from   the  sounds  mnde   by  those 
birds.     Everyone  admits  that  such  words  as  bang,  crack, 
purr,  w^liizz,  hum,  &c.,  have   arisen  from  the  attempt  to 
represent  sounds  characteristic  of  the  object  it  is  intended 
to  designate.'    Take,  again,  the  inarticulate  human  sounds 
— sob,  sigh,  moan,  groan,   laugh,   cough,  weep,  whoop, 
shriek,  yawn :  or  of  animals ;  as  cackle,  chuf^kle,  gobble, 
quack,  twitter,  chirp,  coo,  hoot,  caw,  croak,  chatter,  neigh, 
whinny,  mew,  purr,  bark,  yelp,  roar,  bellow:  the  collision  of 
hard  bodies ;  clap,  rap,  tap,  knap,  snap,  trap,  flap,  slap, 
crack,  smack,  whack,  thwack,  pat,  bat,  batter,  beat,  butt ; 
and  again,  clash,  flash,  plash,  splash,  smash,  dash,  crash, 
bang,  clang,  twang,  ring,  ding,  din,  bump,  thump,  plump, 
boom,  hum,  drum,  hiss,  rustle,  bustle,  whistle,  whisjier,  mur- 
mur, babble,  &c.  So  also  sounds  denoting  certain  motions 
and  actions ;  whirr,  whizz,  puff",  lizz,  fly,  flit,  flow,  flutter, 
patter,    clatter,   crackle,   rattle,   bubble,  guggle,   dabble, 
grapple,  draggle,  rush,  shoot,  sh^t,  shut,  &c.    Many  words 
for  cutting,  and  the  objects  cut,  or  used  for  cutting  Szc, 
are  obviously  of  similar  origin.     Thus  we  have  the  sound 
sh — r  with  each  of  the  vowels  ;  share,  a  part  cut  off;  shear, 
an  instrument  for  cutting  ;  shire,  a  division  of  a  country  j 
shore,  the  division  between  land  and  sea,  or  as  we  use  it 
in  Kent,   between  two   fields;  a   shower,   a  number  of 
separate  particles ;  again  scissors,  scythe,  shread,  scrape, 
shard,  scale,  shale,  shell,   shield,    skull,    shaist,  shatter, 
scatter,  scar,  scoop,  score,  scrape,  scratch,  scum,  scour, 
scurf,  surf,  scuttle,  sect,  shape,  sharp,  shave,  sheaf,  shed, 
shoal,  shred,  split,  splinter,  splutter,  &c.     Another  impor- 
tant class  of  words  is  evidently  founded  on  the  sounds  by 
which  we  naturally  express  our  feelings.     Thus  from  Oh  ! 


;v.ugc,  p.  2G8. 


'  Wfdgwood.  Introduction  to  Die.  of  English  Etymology.     Farrar,  Origin  of 
Language,  p.  89. 


282 


ABSTRACT   TERMS. 


n  ^u 


;  i  ^  I ' 


^1       i    r 


All !  the  instinctive  cry  of  pain,  we  get  woe,  yvc.  Latin, 
wail,  ache,  a^os  Gr. 

Trom  the  deep  guttural  sound  ugh,  we  have  ugly,  huge, 
and  hug. 

From  pr,  or  prut,  indicating  contempt  or  self-conceit, 
comes  proud,  pride,  &c. 

From  fie,  we  have  fiend,  foe,  feud,  foul,  Latin  putris, 
Fr.  puer,  filth,  fulsome,  fear.  In  addition  I  will  only 
remark  that. 

From  that  of  smacking  the  lips  we  get  j'Xvkvs,  dulcis, 
lick,  like. 

Under  these  circumstances  I  cannot  but  think  that  we 
may  look  upon  the  words  above  mentioned  as  the  still  re- 
cognisable descendants  of  roots  which  were  onomatopoeic 
in  their  origin ;  and  I  am  glad  to  see  that  Professor  Max 
Miiller  in  his  second  series  of  lectures  on  language,*  wishes 
to  be  understood  as  offering  no  opposition  to  this  theory, 
although  for  the  ]oresent  *  satisfied  with  considering  roots 
as  phonetic  types.' 

It  may  be  said,  and  said  truly,  that  other  classes  of 
ideas  are  not  so  easily  or  naturally  expressible  by  corre- 
sponding sounds ;  and  that  abstract  +erms  seldom  have  any 
such  obvious,  derivation.  We  must  remember,  however, 
firstly,  that  abstract  terms  are  wanting  in  the  lowest 
languages,  and  secondly,  that  most  words  are  greatly  worn 
"by  use,  and  altered  by  the  difference  of  pronunciation. 
Even  among  the  most  advanced  races  a  few  centuries  suffice 
to  produce  a  great  change ;  how  then  can  v^^e  expect  that 
any  roots  (excepting  those  which  are  ijreserved  from 
material  alteration  by  the  constant  suggestion  of  an  obvious 
fitness)  should  have  retained  their  oriijinal  sound  through- 
out  tlie  immense  period  which  has  elapsed  since  the  origin 


'  Loc.  rit.  p.  92. 


NICKNAMES    AND    SLANG    TERMS. 


283 


3C,  Latin, 


;ly,  huge. 


f-conceit, 

An  putris, 
will   only 

vs,  dulcis, 

,k  that  we 
he  still  re- 
omatopocic 
fessor  Max 
o-e  *  wishes 
his  theory, 
ering  roots 

classes  of 
Q  by  corre- 
m  have  any 
r,  however, 
the  lowest 
reatly  worn 
nunciation. 
uries  suffice 
expect  that 
erved    from 
f  an  obvious 
lid  through- 
e  the  origin 


of  language?  Moreover  everyone  vrlio  has  paid  any  atten- 
tion to  children,  or  schoolboys,  must  have  observed  how 
nicknames,  often  derived  from  slight  and  even  fanciful 
characteristics,  are  seized  on  and  soon  adopted  by  general 
consent.  Hence  even  if  root-words  had  remained  with 
little  alteration,  we  should  still  be  often  puzzled  to  account 
for  their  origin. 

Without,  then,  supposing  with  Farrar  that  all  our  root- 
words  have  originated  from  onomatopoeia,  I  believe  that 
they  arose  in  the  same  w^ay  as  the  nicknames  and  new 
slang  terms  of  our  own  day.  These  we  know  are  often 
selected  from  some  similarity  of  sound,  or  connection  of 
ideas,  often  so  quaint,  fanciful,  or  far-fetched,  that  we  are 
unable  to  recall  the  tvue  origin  even  of  words  which  have 
arisen  in  our  own  time.  How  then  can  we  wonder  that 
the  derivations  of  root- words  which  are  thousands  of  years 
old  should  be  in  so  many  cases  lost,  or  at  least  undeter- 
minable with  certainty. 

Again,  the  words  most  frequently  required,  and  especially 
those  used  by  children,  are  generally  represented  by  the 
simplest  and  easiest  sounds,  merely  because  they  are  the 
simplest.  Thus  in  Europe  we  have  papa  and  daddy, 
mamma,  and  baby ;  poupee  for  a  doll ;  amme  for  a  nurse, 
&c.  Some  authorities,  indeed,  have  derived  Pater  and 
Papa  from  a  root  Pa  to  cherish,  and  Mater,  Mother,  from 
Ma  to  make  ;  this  derivation  is  accepted  by  writers  repre- 
senting the  most  opposite  theories,  as  for  instance  by 
Renan,  Miiller,  and  even  apparently  by  Farrar. 

Professor  Max  Miiller  says  that  '  the  name  father  was 
coined  at  that  early  period,  shows  that  the  father  acknow- 
ledged the  offspring  of  his  wife  as  his  own,  for  thus  only 
had  he  a  right  to  claim  the  title  of  father.  Father  is  de- 
rived from  a  root  Pa,  which  means,  not  to  beget  but  to 
protect,  to  support,  to  nourish.   The  father,  as  gonitor,  was 


284 


ORIGIN   OF   THE   TERMS 


'  ,■'  f 


called  in  Sanskrit  ganitar,  but  as  protector  and  supporter 
of  his  offspring  he  was  called  pitar ;  hence,  in  the  Veda, 
these  two  names  are  used  together,  in  order  to  express  the 
full  idea  of  father.     Thus  the  poet  says :  — 

Dyaus  me  peta  ganita 
Jovis  mei  pater  genitor 

In  a  similar  maimer  matar,  mother,  is  joined  with 
ganitu,  genitrix,  which  shows  that  the  word  matar  must 
soon  have  lost  its  etymological  meaning,  and  have  become 
an  expression  of  respect  and  endearment.  For  among  the 
early  Arians,  matar  had  the  sense  of  maker,  from  Ma,  to 
fashion.' ' 

Now  let  us  see  what  are  the  names  for  father  and 
mother  among  some  other  races,  omitting  all  languages 
derived  from  Sanskrit. 


AFRICA. 

Langiiage. 

Father 

Bola  (N.  W. 

Africa) 

Papa 

Sarar 

Paba 

Pepel 

Papa 

Biafada 

Baba 

Baga 

Bapa 

Timno 

Pa 

Mandenga 

Fa 

Kabunga 

»> 

Toronka 

»» 

Dsalunka 

»> 

Kankanka 

»» 

Bambara 

»» 

Kono 

n 

Vei 

»> 

Soso 

Fafe 

Kisekise 

)i 

Mother. 

m 

No 

Nan.T, 

Na 

Mana 

Kara 

Na 

» 

» 

>» 
Ba 

Ndo 
Ba 

Nga 

•  Comparative  Mytholopy.     Oxford  Essays,  1856,  p.  14. 


:.    t 


supporter 
the  Veda, 
Kprcss  the 


ined  with 
atar  must 
ve  become 
among  the 
>m  Ma,  to 

'ather  and 
languages 


thcr. 
L 

e 

ana 

a 

^ana 

ara 

a 

r» 
>» 
» 

ia 
"do 
la 
ga 

.  u. 


FATHER 

AND    MOTHER. 

285 

Language. 

Father. 

Mather. 

Tene 

FaOa, 

Nga 

Dewoi  (Guinea) 

Ba 

Ma 

Basa 

>) 

No 

Gbo 

5» 

Do 

Daliomo 

Da 

Noo 

]\Iahi 

„  also  Do'lyo 

»» 

Ota 

Baba 

lya 

Egba 

i% 

>> 

Idsesa 

%\ 

Yoruba 

*' 

M 

ji 

»l 

Yagba 

11 

«« 

Eki 

*# 

»» 

)f 

Dsumu 

)) 

49 

Oworo 

»» 

Dsebu 

«» 

M 

Ife 

» 

Yeyc 

Ondo 

•>■> 

Yo 

Moso  (High  Sudan) 

Ba 

]\ra 

Gurma 

5» 

Na 

Sobo  (Niger  Disti 

'ict) 

Wawa 

Neno 

Udso 

Dada 

Ayo 

Nupo 

Nda 

Nna 

Kupa 

Dada 

Mo 

Esitako 

Da 

Na 

Musu 

Nda 

Meya 

Basa 

Ba 

Nno 

Opanda 

Ada 

Onyi 

Igu 

» 

Onya 

Egbira 

9  J 

V 

Buduma  (Central 

Africa) 

Bawa 

Ya 

Bomu 

Aba 

Munio 

Bawa 

Nguru 

»> 

lya 

Kanem 

Mba 

Kareharo 

Baba 

95 

Nana 

JN  goclsin 
Doai 

» 
Aye 

Basa 

Ada 

Am 

Kamuku 

Baba 

Bina 

Songo  (S.  W.  Africa) 

Papa 

;Mama 

r  I 


■li 


m 


W 


i 
f 


ni 


\' 


28G 


WORDS   FOR   FATHER  AND   MOTHER 


Language. 

Fathrr. 

Mother. 

Kiriraan  (S.  E.  Africa) 

B;d)a 

^Im.a 

Bidsogo  (Unclassiiicd  languages)    „ 

Ondsunoi 

Wun 

%* 

Omsion 

Gadsaga 

»> 

Ma 

Gura 

Da 

%o 

Bnn}Tin 

Aba 

Aai 

NiUu 

Baba 

Nya 

Bulanda 

M 

Ni 

Liinba 

Papa 

Na 

Landoma 

11 

Mama 

Barba 

Baba 

Inya 

Timbuktu 

>» 

Nya 

Bagrmi 

Babi 

Kunyun 

Kadzina 

Baba 

Ua 

Timbo 

5» 

Ncno 

Salum 

»> 

Yuma 

Goburu 

» 

Inna 

Kano 

» 

Tna 

Yala 

Ada 

Eno 

Dsarawa 

Tada 

Nga 

Koro 

Oda 

Ma 

Yasgua 

Ada 

Ama 

Kambali 

Dada 

Omo 

Soa  (Arabic  group) 

Aba 

Ayo 

Wadai 

Abba 

Omma 

NON-ARYAN    NATIONS    OF   EUROPF    AND    ASIA. 


Turkish 

Georgian 

Mantshu 

Javanese 

Malay 

Syami  (Thibet) 

Thibetan 

Serpa  (Nepal) 

Murmi       „ 

Pakhya      „ 

Lepcha  (Sikkim) 

Bhutani 


Baba 

Ana 

Mama 

Deda 

Ama 

Eme 

Bapa 

Jbu 

Bapa 

Ibu 

Dhada 

:Ma 

Pha 

Ama 

Aba 

Ama 

Apa 

Amma 

Babai 

Ama 

Abo 

Amo 

Appa 

Ai 

IN    VARIOUS    LANGUAGES. 


2S7 


Lnvfiungr, 

Fathrr. 

Mother. 

Dhlmal  (X.  E.  Boiignl) 

Aba 

Ania 

Kocch             „ 

Bap 

]\Ia 

Garo                „ 

Aba 

Ania 

Burman  (Burniali) 

Ah  pa 

And 

Mm                „ 

Ba 

Au 

Sak 

Aba 

Anu 

Talain  (Siani) 

Ma 

Ya 

Ho  (Central  India) 

Appu 

Enga 

San  til  all 

Buba 

Ayo 

Uraon           „ 

Bilbo 

Ayyo 

Gayeti          ,, 

Bal)a 

Dai 

Khond 

Abba 

Ayya 

Tiiluva  (Southern  India) 

Ammo 

A{)po 

Badaga           „ 

Appa 

Avvo 

Irula               „ 

Amma 

Avvo 

Cinglialcso 

Appa 

Amma 

Chinese 

Fu 

ISLANDERS. 

Mu 

New  Zealand 

Pa-Matuatana 

JVfatua  wahitia 

Tonga  Islands 

Tamny 

Fao 

Erroob  (N.  Australia) 

Bab 

Ama 

Lewis'  Murray  Island 

Buab 

AUSTRALIA. 

Ham  mall 

Jajowrong  (N.  W.  Australia)        Marmook 

Barbook 

Knenkorenwurro     „ 

!Marmak 

Barpanorook 

Burapper                   „ 

ISIarmook 

Barbook 

Taungurong               „ 

Warredoo 

Barbanook 

Boraipar  (S.  Australia j 

]\Iarmme 

Parppe 

Murrumbidgeo 

Kunny 

]\[amma 

Western  Australia 

Mamrann 

Ngangan 

Port  Lincoln 

Pappi 
ESQUIMAUX. 

Maitva 

Esquimaux  (Hudson's  Bay)           Atata 

Amama 

Tsuuktchi  (Asia) 

Atta 

? 

t 


I 

li 

1 


-I 

hs  1 


re 


■'\W> 


288 


THE    WORDS    BA,  MA,  AND    PA. 


The  American  languages  seem  at  first  sight  opposed  to 
tlie  view  here  suggestoJ ;  on  close  examination,  however, 
this  is  not  the  case,  since  the  pronunciation  of  the  labials 
is  very  difficult  to  many  American  races.  Thus,  La  Ilontan 
informs  us  that  the  Ilurons  do  not  use  the  labials,  and 
that  he  spent  four  days  in  attempting  without  success  to 
teach  a  Huron  to  pronounce  b,  p,  and  m.  Garcilasso  do 
hi  Vega  tells  us  that  the  Peruvian  language  wanted  the 
letters  b,  d,  f,  g,  s,  and  x,  ^ad  the  Indians  of  Port  au 
rran9ais,  according  to  M.  Lamanon,  made  no  use  of  the 
consonants  b,  d,  f,  j,  p,  v,  or  x.'  Still  even  in  America  we 
find  some  cases  in  which  the  sounds  fur  father  resemble 
those  so  general  elsewhere  ;  thus 


Language. 

Father. 

Costanos  (N 

W.  America) 

All  Pah 

Tahkali 

>> 

Apa 

Tlatskanai 

>> 

I\Iama 

Nasqually 

»> 

Baa 

Nootka 

•> 

Api 

Athapascans 

(Canada) 

Appa 

Omalias  (Missouri) 

DaJai 

]\Iinnetarcea 

»» 

Tantai 

Clioctas  (Mississippi) 

Aunkko 

Caribs 

Baba 

Uainamben  (Amazons) 

Pai 

Cobou 

>i 

Ipaki 

Tucano 

»> 

Pagui 

Tariana 

» 

Paica 

Baniwa 

Padio 

Bar  re 

Mbaba 

Mother. 
Ah  nah 

Naa 

Sogo 

Una 

Unnungoool 

Eoliong 

Euka 

Iskeh 

Bibi 

Ami 

Ipako 

Maou 

Nnca 

Nadjo 

Memi 


Finding,  then,  that  the  easiest  sounds  which  a  child  can 
produce  denote  father  and  mother  almost  all  over  the 
world  ;  remembering  that  the  root  ba  or  pa  indicates  baby 
as  well  as  father ;  and  observing  that  in  some  cases  the 


•  See  also  Gallatin,  in  Trans.  Am.  Autiq.  Soc.  vol.  i.  p.  63. 


THE   CHOICE    OF   ROOT-WORDS. 


2S9 


>poscd  to 
however, 
lie  labials 
la  Hon  tan 
jials,  and 
success  to 
cilasso  de 
anted  the 
f  Tort  au 
ase  of  the 
uierica  we 
:  resemble 


h.  nah 


aa 

.go 

la 

hnungcool 

liong 

ca 

cch 

3i 
tni 

ako 

fiou 

ica 

idjo 

end 


1  child  can 
over  the 
cates  baby 
cases  the 

,  63. 


usual  sounds  are  reversed ;  as  for  instance  in  CJoorgian, 
where  mama  stands  for  father,  and  dada  for  mother;  or  in 
Tuluva,  where  amme  is  father,  and  appe  mother ;  or  some 
of  the  Australian  tribes,  in  which  combinations  of  the 
sound  mar  stand*:  for  father,  and  bar  for  mother ;  we  must 
surely  admit  that  the  Sanskrit  verb  Pa,  to  protect,  comes 
from  pa,  father,  and  not  vice  versa. 

There  are  few  more  interesting  studies  than  the  stops 
by  which  oar  present  language  has  been  derived  from 
these  original  roots.  This  subject  has  been  admirably 
dealt  with  by  my  friend  Professor  Max  Miiller  in  his 
*  Lectures  on  Language,'  and,  tempting  as  it  would  be  to  do 
so,  I  do  not  propose  to  follow  him  into  that  part  of  the 
science.  As  regards  the  formation  of  the  original  roots, 
however,  he  declines  to  express  any  opinion.  Rejecting 
what  he  calls  the  pooh-pooh  and  bow-wow  theories '  (though 
they  are  in  reality  but  one),  he  observes  that  '  the  theory 
which  is  suggested  to  us  by  an  analysis  of  language  carried 
out  according  to  the  principles  of  comparative  philology  is 
the  very  opposite.  We  arrive  in  the  end  at  roots,  and 
every  one  of  these  expresses  a  general,  not  an  individual 
idea.'  But  the  whole  question  is  how  were  these  roots 
chosen  ?  How  did  particular  sounds  come  to  be  allotted 
to  particular  things  ? 

Here,  however,  Professor  Max  Miiller  stops.  Nothing, 
he  admits,*  'would  be  more  interesting  than  to  know 
from  historical  documents  the  exact  process  by  which 
the  first  man  began  to  lisp  his  first  words,  and  thus  to  be 
rid  for  ever  of  all  the  theories  on  the  origin  of  speech. 
But  this  knowledge  is  denied  us;  and,  if  it  had  been 
otherwise,  we  should  probably  be  quite  unable  to  under- 
stand those  primitive  events  in  the  history  of  the  human 
mind.' 


i-'«M 


i.fS' 


■Ml 

f'  I-- 


'  Science  of  Language,  p.  373. 


»  Loc.cit.ix  316. 


21)0 


THE   CHOICE   CF   ROOT-WORDfl. 


'V;  h 


w\ 

aliu^^B''   M 

Yet  ill  his  last  chapter  ho  says,*  *  and  now  I  am  afraid  I 
have  but  a  few  minutes  left  to  ex])lain  the  last  question  of 
all  in  our  science,  namely — How  can  sound  express  thourfht  ? 
How  did  roots  become  the  sij^ns  of  general  ideaa?  How 
woa  the  abstract  idea  of  measuring  expressed  by  ma,  the 
idea  of  thinking  by  man  ?  How  did  gA,  come  to  mean 
going,  stluX  standing,  sad  sitting,  da  giving,  mar  dying, 
char  walking,  kar  doing  P  I  shall  try  to  answer  as  briefly 
as  possible.  The  400  or  500  roots  which  remain  as  the 
constituent  elements  in  different  families  of  language  aro 
not  interjections,  nor  aro  they  imitations.  They  aro 
phonetic  types  produced  by  a  power  inherent  in  human 
nature.  They  exist,  as  Plato  would  say,  by  nature ;  though 
with  Plato  we  should  add  that,  when  we  say  by  nature, 
we  mean  by  the  hand  of  God.  There  is  a  law  which  runs 
through  nearly  the  wliole  of  nature,  thiit  everything  which 
is  struck  rings. 

'Man,  in  his  primitive  and  perfect  state,  was  not  only 
endowed,  like  the  brute,  with  the  power  of  expressing  his 
sensations  by  interjections,  and  his  perceptions  by  onoma- 
topa)ia.  He  possessed  lik(  wise  the  faculty  of  giving 
more  articulate  expression  to  the  natural  conceptions  of 
his  mind.  That  faculty  was  not  of  his  making.  It  was 
an  instinct,  an  instinct  of  the  mind  as  irresistible  as  any 
other  instinct.  So  far  as  language  is  the  production  of 
that  instinct,  it  belongs  to  the  realm  of  nature.' 

This  answer,  though  expressed  with  Professor  Max 
Miiller's  usual  eloquence,  does  not  carry  to  my  mind  any 
definite  conception.  On  the  other  hand,  it  appears  to 
me  tlia^j  at  any  rate  as  regards  some  roots,  we  have,  as 
already  pointed  out,  a  satisfactory  explanation.  Professor 
Max  Miiller,'  indeed,  admits  that  Hliere  are  some  names. 


•  Loc.  cit.  p.  3S6. 


'  Sciouce  of  Language,  p.  303. 


rOVKUTY  OP  SAVAGE  LANGUAGES. 


201 


afniul  I 
estioii  of 
houfrlit  ? 
i?     How 
f  mil,  tlio 
to  mean 
ir  (lyinpr, 
as  brieiiy 
in  aa  tlio 
^uage  aro 
riiey   aro 
n  human 
J ;  tliough 
y  nature, 
hicli  runs 
injr  which 


not  only 
essing  his 
)y  onoma- 
of  giving 
eptions  of 
r.  It  was 
3le  as  any 
luction  of 

ssor  Max 
mind  any 
ppears  to 
e  have,  as 
Professor 
no  names, 

I.  3G3. 


such  as  cuckoo,  which  are  cU^arly  formed  by  an  iinitatiun 
of  sound.  But,'  ho  adds,  'words  of  this  kind  are,  like 
artificial  flowers,  without  a  root.  They  aro  sterile,  and 
are  unfit  to  express  anything  beyond  the  one  object  which 
they  imitate.  If  you  remember  the  variety  of  derivatives 
that  could  be  formed  from  the  root  spac,  to  see,  you  will  at 
once  perceive  the  difference  between  the  fiibrication  of  such 
a  word  as  cuckoo,  and  the  true  natural  growth  of  words.' 

It  has,  however,  been  already  shown  that  such  roots,  far 
from  being  sterile,  aro  on  the  contrary  very  fruitful,  and 
we  must  remember  that  savage  languages  are  very  poor  in 
abstract  terms.  Indeed  the  vocabularies  of  the  various 
races  are  most  interesting  from  the  indications  which  they 
afford  with  reference  to  the  condition  of  those  by  whom 
they  are  used.  Thus  wo  get  a  melancholy  idea  of  tho 
moral  state  and  family  life  of  tribes  which  are  deficient  in 
terms  of  endearment.  Colonel  Dalton  •  tells  us  that  tho 
Hos  of  Central  India  have  no  *  endearing  epithets.'  Tho 
Algonquin  language,  one  of  the  richest  in  North  America, 
contained  no  verb  '  to  love,'  and  when  Elliot  translated 
the  Bible  into  it  in  IGGI,  he  was  obliged  to  coin  a  word 
for  the  purpose.  The  Tinne  Indians  on  the  other  side  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains  had  no  equivalent  for  *  dear  '  or  *  b( 
loved.'  *  I  endeavoured,'  says  General  Lefroy,  *  to  put  this 
intelligibly  to  Nanette,  by  supposing  such  an  expression 
as  ma  chere  femme  ;  ma  chere  fille.  When  at  length  sho 
understood  it,  her  reply  was  (with  great  emphasis),  "I' 
disent  jamais  9a ;  1'  disent  ma  femme,  ma  fille."  *  The 
Kalmucks  and  some  of  the  South  Sea  Islanders  are  said  to 
have  had  no  word  for  *  thanks.'  Lichtenstein,'^  speaking  of 
the  Bushmen,  mentions  it  as  a  remarkable  instance  of  tho 
total  absence  of  civilisirtion  among  them  that  *  they  have 


h  i 


>  Trans.  Etlm.   Sue.  N.S.,   vul.    vi. 


Vul.  i,  p.  119;  vol.  ii.  p.  40. 


292 


DEFICIENCY   OF    TERMS    OF   AFFECTION. 


1 J . 


no  names,  and  seem  not  to  feel  the  want  of  such  a  meaiis 
of  distinguishmg  one  individual  from  another.'  Pliny' 
makes  a  similar  statement  concerning  a  race  in  Northern 
Africa.  Freycinet  ^  also  asserts  that  some  of  the  Australian 
tribes  did  not  name  their  women.  I  confess  that  I  am 
inclined  to  doubt  these  statements,  and  to  refer  the 
supposed  absence  of  names  to  the  curious  superstitions 
already  referred  to  {ante,  p.  145),  and  which  make  savages 
so  reluctant  to  communicate  their  true  names  to  strangers. 
The  Brazilian  tribes,  according  to  Spix  an^*  Martins,  had 
separate  names  for  the  different  parts  of  the  body,  and  for 
all  the  different  animals  and  plants  with  which  they  were 
acquainted,  but  were  entirely  deficient  in  such  terms  as 
*  color,'  *  tone,'  *  sex,'  *  genus,'  *  spirit,'  &c. 

Bailey'  mentions  that  the  language  of  the  Veddahs 
(Ceylon)  *  is  very  limited.  It  only  contains  such  phrases 
as  are  required  to  describe  the  most  striking  objects  of 
nature,  and  those  which  enter  into  the  daily  life  of  the 
people  themselves.  So  rude  and  primitive  is  their  dialect 
that  the  most  ordinary  objects  and  actions  of  life  are 
described  by  quaint  periphrases.' 

According  to  missionaries  the  Fuegians  had  *  no  abstract 
terms.'  In  the  North  American  languages  a  term  *  suffi- 
ciently  general  to  denote  an  oak-tree  is  exceptional.'  Thus 
the  Choctaw  language  has  names  for  the  black  oak,  white 
oak,  and  red  oak,  but  none  for  an  oak  ;  still  less  for  a  tree. 

The  Tasmanians,  again,  had  no  general  term  for  a  tree, 
though  they  had  names  for  each  particular  kind ;  nor  could 
they  express  *  qualities  such  as  hard,  soft,  warm,  cold,  long, 
short,  round,'  &c. 

Speaking  of  the  Coroados  (Brazil),  Martius  observes 
that  *  it  would  be  in  vain  to  seek  among  them  words  for 


'  Nat.  His.,  1.  V.  s.  viii. 
«  Vol.  ii.  p.  749. 


8  Trans.  Ethn.  Soc.  N.S.,  vol.  ii.  p. 
298;  see  also  p.  300. 


1  a  means 
.'  Pliny* 
Northern 
Australian 
that  I  am 
refer  the 
)erstitions 
[e  savages 
strangers, 
irtius,  had 
[j,  and  for 
they  were 
L  terms  as 

i  Veddahs 
di  phrases 
objects  of 
life  of  the 
eir  dialect 
^f  life   are 

10  abstract 
t^rm  *  suffi- 
iial.'  Thus 
oak,  white 
for  a  tree, 
for  a  tree, 
nor  could 
cold,  long, 

IS  observes 
words  for 

N.S.,  vol.  ii.  p. 


ABSENCE  OF  ABSTLACT  TEEMS. 


293 


the  abstract  ideas  of  plant,  animal,  and  the  still  more 
abstract  notions  colour,  tone,  sex,  species,  &c. ;  such  a 
generalisation  of  ideas  is  found  among  them  only  in  the 
frequently  used  infinitive  of  the  verbs  to  walk,  to  eat,  to 
drink,  to  dance,  to  see,  to  hear,  &c.  Thoy  have  no  con- 
ception of  the  general  powers  and  laws  of  nature,  and 
therefore  cannot  express  them  in  words.'* 

There  is  perhaps  no  more  interesting  part  of  the  study 
of  language  than  that  which  concerns  the  system  of  nume- 
ration, nor  any  more  striking  proof  of  the  low  mental 
condition  of  many  savage  races  than  the  undoubted  fact 
that  they  are  unable  to  count  their  own  fingers,  even  of 
one  hand. 

According  to  Lichtenstein  the  Bushmen  could  not  count 
beyond  two ;  Spix  and  Martins  make  the  same  statement 
about  the  Brazilian  Wood-Indians.  The  Cape  Yorkers  of 
Australia  count  as  follows  : — 


One 

Nefat. 

Two 

Kaes. 

Three 

Naes-nctat. 

Four 

Naes-nacs. 

Five 

Naes-naes-notat. 

Six 

Naes-naes-nacs. 

Speaking  of  the  Lower  Muri'ay  nations  Mr.  Beveridge 
says,  *  their  numerals  are  confined  to  two  alone,  viz.  ryup, 
politi,  the  first  signifying  "  one  "  and  the  second  "  two."  To 
express  five,  thay  say  ryup  murnangin,  or  one  hand,  and  to 
express  ten,  politi  murnangin,  or  two  hands.' '  Indeed,  no 
Australian  can  go  beyond  four,  their  term  for  five  simply 
implying  a  large  number.  The  Dammaras,  according  to 
Galton,  used  no  term  beyond  three.  He  gives  so  admirable 
and  at  the  same  time  so  amusing  an  account  of  Dammara 

•  Spix  and  Martius,  Travels  in  Brazil,         '  Trans,  of  the  K.  S.  of  Victoria,  vol. 
vol.  ii.  p.  253.  vi.  p.  161. 


1 1 


If 

1:1 


294 


DEFICIENCY    IN   NUMERALS. 


i»;i!i 


difficulties  in  language  and  arithmetic  that  I  cannot  resist 
quoting  it  in  full.  *  We  had,'  he  says,^  *  to  trust  to  our 
Dammara  guides,  whose  ideas  of  time  and  distance  were 
most  provokingly  indistinct ;  besides  this  they  have  no 
comparative  in  their  language,  so  that  you  cannot  say  to 
them,  "  which  is  the  longer  of  the  two,  the  next  stage  or 
the  last  one  ?  "  but  you  must  say,  "  the  last  is  little  ;  the 
next  is  it  great  ?  "  The  reply  is  not,  it  is  a  *'  little  longer,'' 
or  "very  much  longer,"  but  simply,  "it  is  so,"  or  "it  is  not 
so."  They  have  a  very  poor  notion  of  time.  If  you  say 
"  suppose  we  start  at  sunrise,  where  will  the  sun  be  when 
we  arrive?"  they  make  the  wildest  points  in  the  sky, 
though  they  are  something  of  astronomers,  and  give  names 
to  several  stars.  They  have  no  way  of  distinguishing  days, 
but  reckon  by  the  rainy  season,  or  the  pig-nut  season. 
When  inquiries  are  made  about  how  many  days'  journey 
off  a  place  may  be,  their  ignorance  of  all  numerical  ideas 
is  very  annoying.  In  practice,  whatever  they  may  possess 
in  their  la,nguage,  they  certainly  use  no  numeral  greater 
than  three.  When  they  wish  to  express  four,  they  take  to 
their  fingers,  which  are  to  them  as  formidable  instruments 
of  calculation  as  a  sliding  rule  is  to  an  English  school-boy. 
They  puzzle  very  much  after  five,  because  no  spare  hand 
remains  to  grasp  and  secure  the  fingers  that  are  required 
for  units.  Yet  they  seldom  lose  oxen  ;  the  way  in  which 
they  discover  the  loss  of  one  is  not  by  the  number  of  the 
herd  being  diminished,  but  by  the  absence  of  a  face  they 
know.  When  bartering  is  going  on,  each  sheep  must  be 
paid  for  separately.  Thus,  suppose  two  sticks  of  tobacco 
to  be  the  rate  of  exchange  for  one  sheep,  it  would  sorely 
puzzle  a  Dammara  to  take  two  sheep  and  give  him  four 
sticks.     I  have  done  so,  and  seen  a  man  put  two  of  the 


Calton,  Tropical  Soutli  Africa,  p.  132. 


SAVAGE    DIFFICULTIES    IN    ARITnilETIC. 


295 


mot  resist 
ist  to  our 
ance  were 
J  have  no 
lot  say  to 
}  stage  or 
iittle ;  the 
ie  longer," 

"it  is  not 
[f  you  say 
a  be  when 
1  the  sky, 
^ive  names 
hing  days, 
ut  season. 
rs'  journey 
irical  ideas 
Lay  possess 
ral  greater 

ey  take  to 
Lstruments 

chool-boy. 
pare  hand 

e  required 
in  which 

3er  of  the 
face  they 

p  must  be 

)f  tobacco 

uld  sorely 
him  four 

wo  of  the 


sticks  apart,  and  take  a  sight  over  them   at  one  of  the 
sheep  he  was  about  to  sell.     Having  satisfied  himself  that 
that  one  was  honestly  paid  for  and  finding  to  his  surprise 
that  exactly  two  sticks  remained  in  hand  to  settlj  the 
account  for  the  other  sheep,  he  would  be  afflicted  with 
doubts  ;  the  transaction  seemed  to  come  out  too  "  p^t  "  to 
be  correct,  and  he  would  refer  back  to  the  first  couple  of 
sticks ;  and  then  his  mind  got  hazy  and  confused,  and 
wandered  from  one  sheep  to  the  other,  and  he  broke  off 
the  transaction  until  two  sticks  were  put  into  his  hand, 
and  one  sheep  driven  away,  and  then  the  other  two  sticks 
given  him,  and  the  second  sheep  driven  away.      "When  a 
Dammara's  mind  is  bent  upon  number,  it  is  too  much 
♦  occupied  to  dwell  upon  quantity  ;  thus  a  heifer  is  bought 
from  a  man  for  ten  sticks  of  tobacco,  his  large  hands 
being  both  spread  out  upon  the  ground,  and  a  stick  placed 
upon  each  finger.     He  gathers  up  the  tobacco,  the  size  of 
the  mass  pleases  him,  and  the  bargain  is  struck.  You  then 
want  to  buy  a  second  heifer ;  the  same  process  is  gone 
through,  but  half  sticks  instead  of  whole  sticks  are  put 
upon  his  fingers  ;  the  man  is  equally  satisfied  at  the  time, 
but  occasionally  finds  it  out,  and  complains  the  next  day. 

*  Once  while  I  watched  a  Dammara  floundering  hope- 
lessly in  a  calculation  on  one  side  of  me,  I  observed  Dinah, 
my  spaniel,  equally  embarrassed  on  the  other.  She  was 
overlooking  half-a-dozen  of  her  new-born  puppies,  which 
had  been  removed  two  or  three  times  from  her,  and  her 
anxiety  was  excessive,  as  she  tried  to  find  out  if  they  were 
all  present,  or  if  any  v/ere  still  missing.  She  kept  puzzling 
and  running  her  eyes  over  them,  backwards  and  forwards, 
but  could  not  satisfy  herself.  She  evidently  had  a  vague 
notion  of  countingj  but  the  figure  was  too  large  for  her 
brain.  Taking  the  two  as  they  stood,  dog  and  Dammara, 
the  comparison  reflected  no  great  honour  on  the  man.' 


'■\ 


'■\^ 


29G 


USE    OF   THE    FINGERS    IN    ARITHMETIC, 


i  ^ 


All  over  the  world  the  fingers  are  used  as  counters,  and 
although  the  numerals  of  most  races  are  so  worn  down  by 
use  that  we  can  no  longer  detect  their  original  meaning, 
there  are  many  savage  tribes  in  which  the  words  used 
are  merely  the  verbal  expressions  of  the  signs  used  in 
counting  with  the  fingers. 

Of  this  I  have  just  given  one  irstance.  In  Labrador 
*Tallek/  a  hand,  means  also  *five,*  and  the  term  for 
twenty  means  hands  and  feet  together.  Speaking  of 
the  Ahts,  Mr.  Sproat'  says,  *it  may  be  noticed  that 
their  word  for  one  occurs  again  in  that  for  six  and 
nine,  and  the  word  for  two  in  that  for  seven  and  eight. 
The  Aht  Indians  count  upon  their  fingers.  They  always 
count,  except  where  they  have  learnt  differently  from  their 
contact  with  civilisation,  by  raising  the  hands  with  the 
palms  upwards,  and  extending  all  the  fingers,  and  bending 
down  each  finger  as  it  is  used  for  enumeration.  They  begin 
with  the  little  finger.  This  little  finger,  then,  is  one. 
Now  six  is  five  (that  is,  one  whole  hand)  and  one  more. 
We  can  easily  see  then,  why  their  word  for  six  compre- 
hends the  word  for  one.  Again,  seven  is  five  (one  whole 
hand)  and  two  more — thus  their  word  for  seven  compre- 
hends the  word  for  two.  Again,  when  they  have  bent  down 
the  eighth  finger,  the  most  noticeable  feature  of  the  hand 
is  that  two  fingers,  that  is,  a  finger  and  a  thumb,  remain 
extended.  Now  the  Aht  word  for  eight  comprehends  atlali, 
the  word  for  two.  The  reason  for  this  I  imagine  to  be  as 
follows : — Eight  is  ten  (or  the  whole  hands)  wanting  two. 
Again,  when  the  ninth  finger  is  down,  only  one  finger  lo 
left  extended.  Their  word  for  nine  comprehends  tsow- 
wauk,  the  word  for  one.  Nine  is  ten  (or  two  whole  hands) 
wanting  one.'* 


'  Scenes  and  St mlies,  of  Siivge  Lifo,         '  Scenes  and  Studies  of  Savage  Life* 


p.  121. 


p.  121-122. 


inters,  and 
n  down  by 
I  meaning, 
vords  used 
ns  used  in 

L  Labrador 
5   term   for 
peaking   of 
Dticed  that 
)r    six   and 
and  eight, 
hey  always 
T  from  their 
is  with  the 
,nd  bending 
They  begin 
.en,  is  one. 
one  more, 
ix  compre- 
(one  whole 
en  compre- 
\  bent  down 
f  the  hand 
nb,  remain 
endd  atlali, 
le  to  be  as 
mting  two. 
e  finger  lo 
ends  tsow- 
lole  hands) 

)f  Savage  Life  * 


AS    SHOWN    IN    THE    NAMES    OF    NUMERALS. 


207 


The  Zamuca  and  Muysca  Indians'  have  a  cumbrous,  but 
very  interesting  system  of  numeration.     For  five  they  say, 

*  hand  finished.'  For  six,  '  one  of  the  other  hand,'  that 
is  to  say  take  a  finger  of  the  other  hand  ;  for  ten  they  say, 

*  two  hands  finished,'  or  sometimes  more  simj^ly  *'  quicha,' 
that  is  *  foot.'  Eleven  is  foot-one ;  twelve,  foot-two, 
thirteen,  foot-three,  and  so  on  :  twenty  is  the  feet  finished  ; 
or  in  other  cases  *  Man,'  because  a  man  has  ten  fingers  and 
ten  toes,  thus  making  twenty. 

Among  tte  Jaruroes  the  word  for  forty  is  '  nocnipume,' 
i.e.  two  men,  from  noeni,  two,  and  canipune,  men.  Hence, 
no  doubt,  the  prevalence  of  the  decimal  system  in  arithme- 
tic ;  it  has  no  particular  advantage ;  indeed,  either  eight 
or  twelve  would,  in  some  respects  have  been  more  con- 
venient ;  eight,  because  you  can  divide  it  by  two,  and  then 
divide  the  result  again  by  two ;  and  twelve  because  it  is 
divisible  by  six,  four,  three,  and  two.  Ten,  however,  has 
naturally  been  selected,  because  we  have  ten  fingers. 

Speaking  of  the  Guiana  natives,  Mr.  Brett  observes'^ 
that,  '  Another  point  in  which  the  different  nations  agree 
is  their  method  of  numeration.  The  first  four  numbers  are 
represented  by  simple  words,  as  in  the  table  above  given. 
Five  is  "  my  one  hand,"  abar-dakaho  in  Arawak.  Then 
comes  a  repetition,  dbar  timen,  hiam  timen,  &c.,  up  to  nine. 
Biam-dahaho,  "  my  two  hands,"  is  ten.  From  ten  to  twenty 
they  use  the  toes  {hiitl  or  olciUl),  as  ahar-hutl-baiin, 
*'  eleven,"  hiam-hiti-hana,  "  twelve,"  &c.  They  call  twenty 
ahar-loJco,  one  loJco  or  man.  They  then  proceed  by  men  or 
scores ;  thus  forty-five  is  laboriously  expressed  by  hlam- 
loko-ahardahaho  tajeago,  "two  men  anr!  one  hand  upon  it." 
For  higher  numbers  they  have  now  recourse  to  our  \vords, 
hundred  and  thousand.^  So  also  among  the  Caribs,  the  word 


'  ITiimboliU's  Personal  Researches, 
vul.  ii.  p.  117. 


'  Erett'fi  ludiau  Tribus  a|'  Guiana, 
p.  417. 


14 


:1  ■» 

i     i  ■ 
i;  i 


298 


USE    OP   THE    FINGERS    IN   ARITHMETIC. 


for  *  ten,'  Clionnoucabo  raim,  meant  literally  *  the  fingers 
of  both  hands ; '  and  that  for  *  twenty '  was  Chonnoiigouci 
raim,  i.e.  the  fingers  and  toes.' 

The  Coroados'^  generally  count  only  by  the  joints  of  the 
fingers,  consequently  only  to  three.  Every  greater  number 
they  ex^^ress  by  the  word  '  mony.' 

According  to  Dobritzlio£f:r  *  the  Guaranies  when  ques- 
tioned respecting  a  thing  exceeding  four,  immediately 
reply  ndipapahabi,  or  ndiiDapahai,  innumerable.' '    So  also 

*  the  Abipones ''  can  only  express  three  numbers  in  proper 
words.  Initdra,  one,  Iiioalca,  two,  Inoaka  yeTcaini,  three. 
They  make  up  for  the  other  numbers  by  various  arts; 
thus,  geyenlc  nate,  the  fingers  of  an  emu,  which,  as  it  has 
three  in  front  and  one  turned  back,  are  four,  serves  to 
express  that  number :  neenhaleh,  a  beautiful  skin  spotted 
with  five  different  colours,  is  used  to  signify  the  number 
five.*  *  Handmhcgcm,  the  fingers  of  one  hand,  means  five  : 
landm  rihegem,  the  fingers  of  both  hands,  ten;  landm 
riliegem,  cat  graeherhalca  anamicJdrihegemy  the  fingers  of 
both  hands  and  both  feet,  twenty.' 

Among  the  Malays  and  throughout  Polynesia  the  word 
for  five  is  ima,  lima,  or  rim  a.  In  Bali,  lima  also  means  a 
hand ;  this  is  also  the  case  in  the  Bugis,  Mandhar,  and 
Ende  languages;  in  the  Makasar  dialect  it  is  liman;  in 
Sasak  it  is  ima ;  in  Bima  it  is  rima ;  in  Sembawa  it  is 
limang." 

In   the   Mpongwe  language  *  tyani '  or  '  tani '  is  five, 

*  ntyame '  is  '  hand.'  ^  The  Koossa  Caffres  make  little  use 
of   numerals.      Lichtenstein   could   never    discover  that 


■  Tertre's   History  of  the  Caribby  *  Loc.  cit.  p.  169. 

Islands.  "  Raffles's  History  of  Java,  Appen- 

*  Spix  and  Martius,  Travels  in  Brazil,  dix  F. 

vol.  ii.  p.  200.  "  Grammar  of  the  Mpongwe  Lan- 

'  Hibt'jry  of  the  Abipones,  vol.  ii.  p.  giiage.  New  York,  Suowdon  aiidPrall, 

171.  Ihil. 


■ 


tie  fiiififcrs 


imougouci 


ints  of  the 
,er  number 

srhen  ques- 
amediately 
'  3    So  also 
}  in  proper 
lini,  three, 
rious  arts; 
h,  as  it  has 
r,  serves  to 
kin  spotted 
the  number 
means  five : 
ten ;    landm 
e  fingers  of 

ia  the  word 
so  means  a 
Lindhar,  and 
liman;  in 
mbawa  it  is 

ini'  is  five, 
,ke  little  use 
scover  that 

of  Java,  Appen- 

Mpongwe  Lan- 
iwdon  aiidPrall, 


THE    ORIGIN   OP   THE    DECIMAL    SYSTEM. 


290 


they  had  any  word  for  eig'ht,  few  could  reckon  beyond  ten, 
nnd  many  did  not  know  the  names  of  any  numerals.  Yet 
if  a  single  animal  was  missing  out  of  a  herd  of  several 
hundred,  they  observed  it  immediately.'  This,  however,  as 
Mr.  Galton  explains,  is  merely  because  they  miss  a  face 
they  know.  Among  the  Zulu  *talitisupa'  six,  means 
literally  *  take  the  thumb,'  i.e.  having  used  the  finger  of 
one  hand,  take  the  thumb  of  the  next.  *  The  numbers,' 
says  Lichtenstein,  '  are  commonly  expressed  among  the 
Beetjuans  by  fingers  held  up,  so  that  the  word  is  rarely 
spoken  ;  many  are  even  unacquainted  with  these  numerals 
and  never  employ  anything  but  the  sign.  It  therefore 
occasioned  me  no  small  trouble  to  learn  the  numerals, 
and  I  could  by  no  means  arrive  at  any  denomination  for 
the  numbers  fivft  and  nine.  Beyond  ten  even  the  most 
learned  could  not  reckon,  nor  could  I  make  out  by  what 
signs  they  ever  designated  these  higher  numbers.'  ^ 

Even  in  our  own  language  the  word  '  five  '  has  a  simi- 
lar origin,  since  it  comes  from  the  Greek  nrivTS,  which 
again  is  evidently  connected  with  the  Persian  pendji ;  now 
in  Persian  *  pentcha,'  means  a  hand,  as  Humboldt  has 
already  pointed  out.^ 

These  examples  appear  to  me  very  instructive  ;  we  seem 
as  it  were  to  trace  up  the  formation  of  the  numerals  ;  we 
perceive  the  true  cause  of  the  decimal  system  of  notation ; 
and  we  obtain  interesting  if  melancholy,  evidence  of  the 
extent  to  which  the  faculty  of  thought  lies  dormant  among 
the  lower  races  of  inan. 


'  Lichtenstein,  vol.  i.  p.  280.     See 
also  A  pp. 
*  Loc,  cit.  vol.  ii.     App. 


'  PersoHiil     Rosetirchcs,     London, 
1814,  vol.  ii.  p.  116. 


I 


i  i 


! 


i 


III 

I- 
1  ■ 


n 


CHAPTER   IX. 


LAWS. 


rpHE  customs  and  laws  of  tlie  lower  races,  so  far  as  re- 
JL  ligious  and  family  relations  are  concerned,  have 
already  been  discussed.  There  are,  however,  some  other 
points  of  view  with  reference  to  which  it  seems  desirable 
to  make  some  remarks.  Tlie  progress  and  development  of 
law  is  indeed  one  of  the  most  interesting  as  well  as  import- 
tant  sections  of  human  history.  It  is  far  less  essential,  as 
Goguct*  tmly  observes,  *de  savoir  le  nombre  des  dynasties 
et  les  noms  des  souverains  qui  les  composoient ;  mais  il 
est  essentiel  de  connoitre  les  loix,  les  arts,  les  sciences  et 
les  usages  d'une  nation  que  toute  I'antiquite  a  regardee 
comme  un  modele  de  sagesse  et  de  vertu.  Voila  les  objets 
que  je  me  suis  proposes,  et  que  je  vais  traiter  avec  le  plus 
d'exactitude  qu'il  me  sera  possible.'  It  is,  however,  im- 
possible thoroughly  to  understand  the  laws  of  the  most 
advanced  nations,  unless  we  take  into  consideration  those 
customs  of  ruder  communities  from  which  they  took  their 
origin,  by  which  they  are  so  profoundly  influenced. 

The  subject  is,  moreover,  of  peculiar  importance  to  us, 
forming  as  we  do  part  of  a  great  and  composite  empire. 

It  is,  therefore,  very  much  to  be  regretted  that  we  are 
not  mure  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  laws  and  customs 
of  savage  races.     At  the  time  Goguet  published  his  cele- 


■4 


'    De  rOrigii.c  cTch  Luix,  des  Arts  et  des  Sciences,  vol.  i.  p.  '15. 


!    'i 


IMPOTITAXCE    OF    THE    firBJECT. 


301 


y 


)  far  as  rc- 
L-ned,   have 
some  other 
IS  desira"l)le 
jlopment  of 
I  as  imi)ort- 
ssential,  as 
ps  dynasties 
tit;  mais  il 
sciences  et 
a  regardee 
tales  objets 
ivec  le  plus 
3wever,  im- 
>f  the  most 
ation  those 
r  took  their 
iced. 

ince  to  us, 
e  empire, 
hat  we  are 
md  customs 
d  his  cele- 

p.  15. 


biutcd  work,  our  knowlodyo  was  uveii  more  defective  tli  lu 
is  now  the  case. 

Still  I  am  surprised  that  with  tlio  evidence  which  was 
before  liiin,  and  especially  as  1.  .vas  one  of  the  first  to 
point  out  that  much  light  is  thrown  by  the  condition 
of  modern  savages  on  that  of  our  ancestors  in  times  now 
long  gone  by,'  he  should  have  regarded  the  monarchical 
form  of  government  as  the  most  ancient  and  most  univer- 
sally established.^  *  C'est,  sans  contredit,'  he  says,  *  le  plus 
anciennement  et  le  plus  universellement  etabli.' 

A  more  careful  consideration  of  the  evidence  afFovdod  by 
the  lower  races  of  man  would  probably  have  modified  his 
views  on  some  other  points.  For  instance,^  he  observes  that 
*il  n'est  pas  difficile  de  faire  scntir  par  qucllcs  raisons  le 
gouvernement  monarchique  est  le  premier  dont  Tidee  a  dii 
se  presenter.  II  etoit  plus  aise  aux  peuples,  lorsqu'ils  ont 
pense  a  etablir  I'ordre  dans  la  societe,  do  se  rassemWer 
sous  un  seul  chef,  que  sous  pkisieurs:  la  royaute  est 
d'ailleurs  une  image  de  Fautcrite  que  les  peres  avoient 
orifjinairement  sur  leurs  enfants :  ils  etoient  dans  ces 
premiers  tems  les  chefs  et  les  legislateurs  de  leur  famille.' 

Whereas  it  has  been  already  shown  in  the  earlier 
chapters  of  this  work  that  the  family  is  by  no  means  so 
perfectly  organised  among  the  lowest  races. 


'  M.  Goguot  remarl<s  tluit  soino 
races,  being  ignorant  of  tho  art  of 
writing,  even  now,  '  pour  constater 
leurs  ventes,  lours  achats,  leurs  cm- 
p.'unts,  etc.,  emploient  certains  mor- 
ceaux  de  bois  entailles  divcrsement. 
On  les  coupe  en  deux:  le  creancier  en 
garde  unemoitie,  et  le  debiteurrctient 
I'autre.  Quand  la  dette  ou  la  promesso 
est  acquittt^e,  chacun  reniet  le  morceau 
qu'il  avoit  par  devcrs  lui '  (p.  2G). 
This  method  of  keeping  accounts  is 
not  confined  to  savage  races.     It  was 


practised  by  tho  English  Government 
down  to  the  commencement  of  tho 
preseiit  century,  and  I  myself  "ossess 
such  a  receipt  given  by  the  English 
Government  to  the  East  India  Com- 
pany in  tho  year  1770,  and  duly  pro- 
served  in  the  India  House,  until  within 
tho  Inst  ten  years.  It  represents 
21,000/.,  roprf'sented  by  twenty-four 
equal  notches  in  a  rod  of  wood. 

*  Loc.  cif.  vol.  i.  p.  9. 

'  Loc.  cif.  p.  10. 


<    ill 


!  i 


1!1 


n02 


TH!^    CHAKACTER   OP   TIIR 


I' 


Sir  G.  Oroy,'  speaking  of  the  Australians,  truly  says  that 
tlio  'laws  of  this  people  are  unfitted  for  the  govenunent  of 
a  single  isolated  family,  some  of  them  being  only  adapted 
for  the  regulation  of  an  assemblage  of  families ;  they  could, 
therefore,  not  have  been  a  series  of  rules  given  by  the  first 
father  to  his  children :  again,  they  could  not  have  been 
rules  given  by  an  assembly  of  the  first  fathers  to  their 
children,  for  there  are  these  remarkable  features  about 
them,  that  some  are  of  such  a  nature  as  to  compel  those 
subject  to  them  to  remain  in  a  state  of  barbarism.' 

Again  Goguet  ^  states  that  '  les  loix  du  mariage  out  mis 
un  frein  a  une  passion  qui  n'en  voudroit  reconnoitre  aucun. 
Elles  ont  fait  plus  :  en  determinant  les  degres  de  consan- 
guinite  qui  rendent  les  alliances  illegitimos,  elles  ont  appris 
aux  hommes  a  connoitre  et  a  respecter  les  droits  de  la 
nature.  Ce  sont  ces  loix  enjBn  qui,  en  constatant  la  con  Ji- 
tion  des  enfans,  ont  assure  des  citoyens  a  I'Etat,  et  donne 
aux  societes  une  forme  fixe  et  assuree,' which  is  very  far  from 
being  the  case.  I  have  already  observed  {ante,  p.  2)  that 
even  Mr.  Maine  would  doubtless  have  modified  in  some 
points  the  views  expressed  in  his  excellent  work,'  if  he  had 
paid  more  attention  to  tlie  manners,  customs,  and  laws  of 
savages.  But,  although  the  progress  and  development  of 
law  belong,  for  the  most  part,  to  a  more  advanced  stage  of 
human  society  than  that  which  is  the  subject  of  this  work, 
still,  in  one  sense,  as  already  mentioned,  even  the  lowest 
races  of  savages  have  laws.  Nay,  every  action  of  their 
lives  is  regulated  by  numerous  rules,  none  the  less  strin- 
gent because  unwritten.  Thus  Mr.  Lang,  speaking  of  the 
Australians,''  tells  us  that  'instead  of  enjoying  perfect 
personal  freedom,  as  it  would  at  first  appear,  they  are 


'  Grey's  Australia,  vol.  ii.  p.  222. 
«  Loo  cit.  p.  20. 
•  Ancient  Law. 


*  Aborigines  of  Australia,  p.  1.  Eyre, 
loc,  cit.  vol.  ii.  p.  385. 


LAWS   OP    SAVAOrS. 


003 


'  says  tlijifc 
3riiinont  of 
ly  adapted 
they  could, 
)y  the  first 
have  been 
s  to  tlicir 
ires  about 
npel  those 

01/ 

ge  out  mis 
itro  aueun. 
Ic  consan- 
oiit  appris 
oits  de  la 
it  la  con  Ji- 
1,  et  donne 
ry  far  from 
,  p.  2)  that 
d  in  some 
,'  if  he  had 
nd  laws  of 
opment  of 
ed  stage  of 
this  work, 
he  lowest 
n  of  their 
less  strin- 
dng  of  the 
ng  perfect 
,  they  are 

ia,  p.  7.  Eyre, 


governed  by  a  code  of  rules  and  a  set  of  customs  wliieli 
form  one  of  the  most  cruel  tyrannies  tliat  has  ever,  perhaps, 
existed  on  the  face  of  the  cartli,  subjecting  not  only  the 
will,  but  the  property  and  life  of  the  weak  to  the  dominion 
of  the  strong.  The  whole  tendency  of  the  system  is  to 
give  everything  to  the  strong  and  old,  to  the  prejudice  of 
the  weak  and  young,  and  more  particularly  to  the  detri- 
ment of  the  women.  Thoy  have  rules  by  which  the  best 
food,  the  best  pieces,  the  best  animals,  &c.,  are  prohibited 
to  the  women  and  young  men,  and  reserved  for  the  old. 
The  women  are  generally  appropriated  to  the  old  and 
powerful,  some  of  whom  possess  from  four  to  seven  wives ; 
while  wives  are  altogether  denied  to  young  men,  unless 
they  have  sisters  to  give  in  exchange,  and  are  strong  and 
courageous  enough  to  prevent  their  sisters  from  being 
taken  without  exchange.' 

This  is  no  peculiar  case.  No  savage  is  free.  All  over 
the  world  his  daily  life  is  regulated  by  a  complicated  and 
apparently  most  inconvenient  set  of  customs  (as  forcible  as 
I'aws),  of  quaint  prohibitions  and  privileges ;  the  prohibi- 
tions as  a  general  rule  applying  to  the  women,  and  the 
privileges  to  the  men. 

*To  believe,'  says  Sir  G.  Grey,*  *  that  man  in  a  savage 
state  is  endowed  with  freedom,  either  of  thought  or  action, 
is  erroneous  in  the  highest  degree.' 

In  Tahiti,'  *  the  men  were  allowed  to  eat  the  flesh  of  the 
pig,  and  of  fowls,  and  a  variety  of  fish,  cocoa-nuts,  and 
plantains,  and  whatevT  was  presented  as  an  offering  to 
the  gods,  which  the  females,  on  pain  of  death,  were  for- 
bidden to  touch,  as  it  was  supposed  they  would  pollute 
them.  The  fires  on  which  the  men's  food  was  cooked,  were 
also  sacred,  and  were  forbidden  to  be  used  by  the  females. 

'  Grey's  Austriilia,  vol.  ii.  p.  217.       '  Polynesiuu  Researches,  vol.  i.  p,  222. 


lot        Tlin    MULTIPLICITY    OP    LAAV.S    AMONG    SAVAOnS. 


The  bjiplvcts  in  wliicli  tlicir  provisions  were  lv<'j>t,  and  ll»o 
liouHO  in  winch  the  men  a<e,  wen?  also  sacred,  and  pro- 
liil)ited  to  the  females  nnder  the  same  cruel  penalty  ;  lienco 
tli(5  inferior  food,  Loth  for  wives,  dan^diters,  &e.,  wiis 
cooked  at  separate  iires,  deposited  in  distinct  baskets, 
iind  eat(»n  in  lonely  S(;litnde  by  the  females,  in  little  huia 
erected  for  the  pur^iosc.* 

'  Nothing,'  says  the  Bishop  of  Wellington,  *  can  be  more 
mistaken  than  to  represent  the  New  Zealanders  as  a  people 
without  law  and  order.  They  are,  and  were,  the  slaves  of 
law,  rule,  and  precedent.' ' 

If  savages  pass  unnoticed  many  actions  which  we  should 
consider  as  highly  criminal,  on  the  other  hand  they  strictly 
forbid  others  which  wo  should  ccmsider  altogether  im- 
material. 

The  natives  of  Russian  America,  near  the  Yukon  river, 
*  have  certain  superstitions  with  regard  to  the  bones  of 
animals,  which  they  will  neither  throw  on  the  fire  nor  to 
the  dogs,  but  save  them  in  their  houses  or  caches.  When 
they  saw  us  careless  in  such  matters,  they  sai  ■  it  would 
prevent  them  from  catching  or  shooting  successfully. 
Also,  they  will  not  throw  away  their  hair  or  nails  just  cut 
short,  but  save  them,  hanging  them  frequently  in  packages 
on  the  trees.' 

The  Mongols '  think  it  a  fault  with  a  knife  to  touch  the 
fire,  or  take  tlesli  out  of  the  pot ;  or  to  cleave  wood  with  a 
hatchet  near  the  hearth,  imagining  it  takes  away  the  fire's 
power.  It  is  no  less  faulty  to  lean  on  a  whip,  or  touch 
arrows  with  it ;  to  kill  young  birds ;  or  pour  liquor  on  the 
ground:  to  strike  a  horse  with  the  bridle;  or  break  one  bone 
against  another.  Mr.  Tylor  has  already  pointed  out  *  that 
almost  exactly  the  same  prohibitions  occur  in  America. 

•  Trans.  Etliii.  Soc.  1870,  p.  307.  '  Astlcy's  Coll.,  vol.  iv.  p.  518. 

'  Whympcr,  Trans.  Ethu.  Soc,  N.S.         *  Eiivly  History  of  Man,  p.  13G. 
vol.  vii.  p.  174. 


ns. 


nULE^^    UKfiATINM}    TO    II  rNTlNC. 


.'{O." 


^ 


,  and  the 
and  pro- 
y  ;  lieneo 
&c.,  was 
baskets, 
ittle  liutti 

1  be  more 

5  a  peopl(5 

slaves  of 

wc  should 
'y  strictly 
jther  iin- 

koii  river, 
bones  of 

ire  nor  to 
When 
it  would 

cessfully. 
just  cut 
"tackages 

oucli  the 
)d  with  a 
lie  fire's 
or  touch 
)r  on  the 
one  bone 
ut  *  that 
erica. 

p.  518. 
p.  13G. 


H  Tanner 


Some  of  those  rules  are  very  si'iisihli".  Thu 
states  that  tlu^  Al^^'onkin  Iiulians,  when  on  a  war-path, 
must  not  sit  upon  th(i  naked  <^round  ;  bnt  nnist,  iit  leiist, 
have  some  «,'rass  or  bushes  under  them.  Tliey  nuist,  if 
possible,  avoid  wettiufj  their  feet ;  but  if  they  are  com- 
pelled to  wade  throu<^h  a  swamp,  or  to  cross  a  stream,  they 
must  keep  their  clothes  dry,  and  whip  their  le^'s  with 
bushes  or  gras^,  when  they  come  out  of  the  water.' '  F<>r 
others  the  reason  is  not  so  obvious.  Thus  the  smiiU  bowls 
out  of  which  they  drink  arc  marked  across  the  middle, 
in  going  out  they  must  place  one  side  to  their  mouth  ;  in 
returning,  the  other.  The  vessels  must  also  on  their 
return  be  thrown  away,  or  hung  up  in  a  tree. 

Hunting  tribes  generally  have  ndes,  well  understood, 
with  reference  to  game.  Thus  among  the  Greenlanders, 
should  a  seal  escape  with  a  hunter's  javelin  in  it,  and  bo 
killed  by  another  man  afterwards,  it  belongs  to  the  former. 
But  if  the  seal  is  struck  with  the  harpoon  and  bladder,  and 
the  string  breaks,  the  hunter  loses  his  right.  If  a  man 
finds  a  seal  dead  with  a  harpoon  in  it,  he  keeps  the  seal 
but  returns  the  harpoon.  In  reindeer  hunting,  if  several 
hunters  strike  a  deer  together,  it  belongs  to  the  one  whose 
arrow  is  nearest  the  heart.  The  arrows  are  all  marked,  so 
that  no  dispute  can  arise,  but  since  guns  have  been  intro- 
duced, many  quarrels  have  taken  placi*.  Any  man  who 
finds  a  piece  of  drift  wood  (which  in  the  far  North  is  ex- 
tremely valuable),  can  appropriate  it  by  placing  a  stone  on 
it,  as  a  sign  that  some  one  has  taken  possession  of  it.  No 
other  Greenlander  will  then  touch  it. 

Again,  far  from  being  informal  or  extemporary,  the 
salutations,  ceremonies,  treaties,  and  contracts  of  savages 
are  characterised  by  the  very  opposite  qualities. 

Eyre  mentions  that  in  Australia  *  in  their  intercourse 

'  Tanner's  Niurativp,  p.  123. 


OOl) 


SALUTATIONS    AND    CEREMONIES. 


,'?     ii 


■with  cacli  otlier,  natives  of  different  tribes  arc  exceedingly 
punctilious.  '  ^ 

Mariner  gives  a  long  account  of  the  elaborate  ceremonies 
practised  by  the  Tongans,  and  of  their  regard  for  rank."-' 

Thus  the  king  '  was  by  no  means  of  the  highest  rani'.c. 
The  Tooitonga,  Veaclii,  and  several  others  preceded  him. 
Tndeed  the  name  Tooitonga  means  King  of  Tonga ;  the 
office,  however,  was  wholly  of  a  religious  character :  the 
Tooitonga  being  regarded  as  descended  from  the  gods,  if 
not  a  deity  himself.  He  was  so  sacred  that  some  words 
were  retained  for  his  exclusive  use. 

Below  Tooitonga  and  Veachi  came  tlie  priests,  while 
civil  soo^ety  was  divided  into  five  ranks,  the  king,  the 
nobles,  the  Matabooles,  the  Mooas,  and  the  Tooas.  The 
child  took  the  rank  of  the  niotLer  among  the  nobles,  but 
the  Matabooles  were  succeeded  by  the  eldest  son. 

It  is  curious  that  the  use  of  the  third  person  in  token  of 
respect  occurs  in  Tonga,  as  well  as  some  otlier  countries. 
'  Thus  the  King  of  Tonga  addressing  the  Tooitonga  says, 
"  Ho  egi  Tooitonga,"  that  is,  literally,  thy  Lord  Tooi- 
tonga, in  which  the  possessive  j)ronoun  thy,  or  your,  is 
used  instead  of  my :  or,  if  the  word  egi  be  translated  lord- 
ship, or  chiefship,  the  term  of  address  wiil  be  more  con- 
sistent and  similar  to  ours,  your  lordship,  your  grace,  your 
majesty.  The  title,  ho  egi,  is  never  used  but  in  addressing 
a  superior  chief,  or  speaking  of  a  god,  or  in  a  public 
speech.  Ho  egi !  also  means  chiefs,  as  in  the  commence- 
ment jf  Finow's  speech.'* 

The  Egbas,  a  negro  race  of  West  Africa,  who  are,  says 
Burton,'' '  gifted  witb  uncommon  loquacity  and  spare  time, 
have  invented  a  variety  of  salutations  and  counter-saluta- 


'  Discoveries  in  Australia,  vol.  ii. 
p.  214. 

^  Tonga  Islands,  vol.  ii.  pp.  185, 199, 
207. 


'  Loc.  cit.  vol.  ii.  p.  79- 

*  Mariner,  vol.  ii.  p.  142. 

*  Burton,  Abbeokuta,  vol.  i.  p.  113. 


SALUTATIONS    AND   CEREMONIES. 


307 


cccdingly 

eremonies 
r  ranlv.'  *'' 
lest  ranlc. 
eded  him. 
onga ;  the 
xcter:  the 
he  gods,  if 
)me  words 

ests,  while 
king,  the 
>oas.  The 
lobles,  but 
n. 

in  token  of 
countries. 
;onga  says, 
lOrd  Tooi- 
or  your,  is 
lated  lord- 
more  eon- 
jrace,  your 
addressing 
1  a  public 
3ommcnce- 


o  are,  says 
^pare  time, 
ter-saluta- 

9. 

142. 
vol.  i.  p.  113. 


tions  applicable  to  every  possible  occasion.  For  instance, 
Oji  re,  did  you  wake  well  *?  Akwaro,  good  morning  ! 
Akuasan,  good  day  !  Akwalo,  good  evening  !  Akware,  to 
one  tired.  Akushe,  to  one  at  work.  Akurin  (from  rin, 
to  walk),  to  a  traveller.  Akule,  to  one  in  the  house. 
Akwatijo,  after  a  long  absence.  Akwalejo,  to  a  stranger. 
Akurajo,  to  one  in  distress.  Akujiko,  to  one  sitting. 
Akudaro  to  one  standing.  Akuta,  to  one  selling.  Wolebe 
(be  careful)  to  one  met,  and  so  forth.  The  servile  shash- 
tanga  or  postration  of  the  Hindus  is  also  a  universal  custom. 
Tt  is  performed  in  different  w.ays ;  the  most  general  is, 
after  depositing  the  burden,  and  clapping  hands  once, 
twice,  or  thrice,  to  go  on  all-fours,  touch  the  ground  with 
the  belly  and  breast,  the  forehead,  and  both  sides  of  the 
face  successively ;  kiss  the  earth,  half  rise  up,  then  pass 
the  left  over  the  right  forearm,  and  vice  versa,  and  finally, 
after  again  saluting  mother  Hertha,  to  stand  erect.  The 
inferior  prostrates  to  the  superior,  the  son  to  the  mother, 
the  younger  to  the  elder  brother,  and  I  have  been  obliged 
to  correct  a  Moslem  boy  of  the  evil  practice  of  assuming  a 
position  in  which  man  should  address  none  but  his  Maker. 
The  performance  usually  takes  place  once  a  day  on  first 
meeting,  but  meetings  are  so  numerous  that  at  least  one 
hour  out  of  the  twenty-four  must  thus  be  spent  by  a  man 
about  town.  Equals  kneel,  or  rather  squat,  before  one- 
another,  and  snap  the  fiingers  in  the  peculiarly  West 
African  way,  w^liich  seems  to  differ  in  every  tribe.' 

In  the  religious  customs  of  Tahiti,^  *  however  large  or 
costly  the  sacrifices  that  had  been  offered,  and  however  near 
its  close  the  most  protracted  ceremony  might  be,  if  the 
priest  omitted  or  misplaced  any  word  in  the  prayers  with 
which  it  was  always  accompanied,  or  if  his  attention  was 
diverted  by  any  means,  so  that  the  prayer  was  hai,  or  brokeii, 

'  Ellis'  Polynesian  Researches,  vol.  ii.  p.  157. 


308 


PROrERTY   IN    LAND. 


the  -vvliolc  was  rendered  nnaviilliible,  lie  must  prepare  otlier 
victims,  and  repeat  liis  prayers  over  from  tlic  commence- 
ment.' 

« 

In  Feegee'  'public  business  is  conducted  with  tedious 
formality.  Old  forms  are  strictly  observed,  and  innova- 
tions opposed.  An  abundance  of  measured  clapping  of 
hands,  and  subdued  exclamations,  characterise  these 
occasions.  Whales'  teeth  and  other  property  are  never 
exchanged  or  presented  without  the  following  or  similar 
form  :  "  A  !  woi !  woi !  woi !  A  !  woi !  woi !  woi !!  A  tabu  a 
levu !  woi!  woi!  /,  riudua,  mudua,  mudua  !"  (clapping).' 
But  little  consideration  is  required  to  show  that  this  is  quite 
natural.  In  the  absence  of  writing,  evidence  of  contracts 
i»ust  depend  on  the  testimony  of  witnesses,  and  it  is 
necessary  therefore  to  avoid  all  haste  which  might  lead  to 
foi  getfulness,  and  to  imprint  the  ceremony  as  much  as 
possible  on  the  minds  of  those  present. 

Passing  on  to  the  question  of  property,  *  La  premiere  loi,' 
says  Goguet,'^  *  qu'on  aura  etablie,  aura  ete  pour  assigner  et 
assurer  a  chaque  habitant  une  certaine  quantite  de  terrein. 
Dans  les  tems  ou  le  labourage  n'etoit  point  encore  connu, 
Ics  terres  etoient  en  commun.  II  n'y  avoit  ni  bornes  ni 
limites  qui  en  reglassent  le  partage,  chacun  prenoit  sa 
subsistance  ou.  il  jugeoit  si-propos.  On  abandonnoit,  on 
reprenoit  successivement  les  mcmes  cantons,  suivant  qu'ils 
etoient  plus  ou  moins  epuiscs :  cette  maniere  de  vivre  n'a 
plus  ete  praticable  quand  I'agriculture  a  ete  introduite.  II 
fallut  alors  distinguer  les  possessions  et  prendre  les 
mesures  necessaires  pour  faire  jouir  chaque  citoyen  du  fruit 
de  ses  travaux.  II  etoit  dans  I'ordre  que  celui  qui  avoit 
seme  du  grain  fut  sur  de  le  recueillir,  et  ne  vit  pas  les 
autres  profiter  des  peines  et  des  soins  qu'ilc  s'etoit  donncs. 


i 


Williams' riji  and  the  Fijianp,  vol.  i.  p.  28, 


'  Loc.  cit. 


PROPERTY    IN    LAND. 


309 


arc  other 
mmence- 

li  tedious 
I  innova- 
bpping  of 
:se  these 
ire  never 
)r  similar 
1  A  tabu a 
lapping).' 
lis  is  quite 

contracts 
and  it  is 
ht  lead  to 

much  as 

miere  loi,' 

ssigner  et 

le  terrein. 

)re  connu, 

homes  ni 

)renoit  sa 

)nnoit,  on 

ant  qu'ils 

vivro  n'a 

duite.     II 

ndre    les 

n  du  fruit 

qui  avoit 

t  pas  les 

it  donncs. 


De-la  sont  emanees  les  loix  sur  la  proprietc   dos  tcrros, 
sur  la  maniere  de  les  partager  et  d'en  jouir.' 

The  same  view  has  been  taken  by  other  writers.  It  does 
not,  however,  appear  that  property  in  land  implies,  or 
necessarily  arose  from,  agriculture.  On  the  contrary,  it 
exists  even  in  hunting  communities.  Usually,  indeed, 
during  the  hunting  stage,  property  in  land  is  tribal,  not 
individual.  The  North  American  Indians  seem,  as  a  gene- 
ral rule,  to  have  had  no  individual  property  in  land.  It 
appears,  therefore,  at  first  sight  remarkable,  that  among 
the  Australians,*  who  are  in  most  respects  so  much  lower 
in  the  scale,  *  every  male  has  some  portion  of  land,  of  which 
he  can  always  point  out  the  exact  boundaries.  These 
properties  are  subdivided  by  a  father  among  his  sons 
during  his  own  lifetime,  and  descend  in  almost  hereditary 
succession.  A  man  can  dispose  of  or  barter  his  lands  to 
others,  but  a  female  never  inherits,  nor  has  primogeniture 
among  the  sons  any  peculiar  rights  or  advantages.'  Nay, 
more  than  this,  there  are  some  tracts  of  land,  peculiarly 
rich  in  gum,  &c.,  and  over  which,  at  the  period  when  the 
gum  is  in  season,  numerous  families  have  an  acknowledged 
right,  although  they  are  not  allowed  to  come  there  at  other 
times.'*  Even  the  water  of  the  rivers  is  claimed  as  pro- 
perty by  some  of  the  Australian  tribes.  *  Trespass  for  the 
purpose  of  hunting '  is  in  Australia  regarded  as  a  capital 
offence,  and  is,  when  possible,  punished  with  death.^ 

The  explanation  seems  to  be  that  the  Eedskins  depended 
mainly  on  the  larger  game,  while  the  Australians  fed  on 
opossums,  reptiles,  insects,  roots,  &c.  The  Eedskin,  there- 
fore, if  land  had  been  divided  into  individual  allotments, 
might  have  been  starved  in  the  vicinity  of  abundance ; 


'  Eyre,  DiscoTcrics  in  Austral  in, 
vol.  ii.  p.  '297.  See  also  Lang  in 
Grey's  Australia,  vol.  ii.  p.  232. 


'  Grey's  Australia,  vol,  ii.  p.  298. 
"  Zo".  df.  p.  236. 


:i  ^1 


310 


COMMUNAL   PROPERTT. 


''      ' 


while  the  A  a.  tralian  could  generally  obtain  food  on  liis 
own  propert3\ 

In  Polynesia,'  where  cultivation  was  carefully  attended 
to,  as  in  Tahiti,  *  every  portion  of  land  has  its  respective 
owner ;  and  even  the  distinct  trees  on  the  land  had  some- 
times different  proprietors,  and  a  tree,  and  the  land  it 
grew  on,  different  owners.' 

Even,  however,  an  agricultural  condition  does  not 
necessarily  require  individual  property  in  land;  in  the 
E^ussian  '  Mirs,'  or  communal  villages,  moveable  property 
alone  was  individual ;  the  land  was  common.^ 

In  other  parts  of  Russia,  *  after  the  expiration  of  a  given, 
but  not  in  all  cases  of  the  same,  period,  separate  ow  ner- 
sliips  are  extinguished,  the  land  of  the  village  is  thrown 
into  I,  mass,  and  then  it  is  re-distributed  among  the 
families  composing  the  community,  according  to  their 
number.  This  repartition  having  been  effected,  the  rights 
of  families  and  of  individuals  are  again  allowed  to  branch 
out  into  various  lines,  which  they  continue  to  follow  till 
another  period  of  division  comes  round.'  * 

It  is  stated  to  have  been  a  principle  of  the  earliest 
Sclavonian  laws  that  the  property  of  families  could  not  be 
divided  for  a  perpetuity.  Even  now  in  parts  of  Servia, 
Croatia,  and  Austrian  Sclavonia,  the  entire  land  is  culti- 
vated by  the  villagers,  and  the  produce  is  annually  divided. 

Diodorus  Siculus  states  that  the  Celtibcrians  divided  their 
land  annually  among  individuals,  to  be  laboured  for  the 
use  of  the  public ;  and  that  the  product  was  stored  up,  and 
distributed  from  time  to  time  among  the  necessitous.* 

In  New  Zealand  there  were  three  distinct  tenures  of 
land :  *  viz.,  by  the  tribe,  by  the  family,  and  by  the  indi- 


'  Ellis'  Polynesian  Eesearches,  vol. 
ii.  p.  362.  Dieifeubach,  vol.  ii.  p. 
114. 

'  Fancher,  in  Sj'stems  of  Lund 
Tenure,  p.  362,  et  seq. 


^  IMaine's  Ancient  Law,  p.  267. 

*  Lord  Kames'  History  of  Man,  vol. 
i.  p.  93. 

*  Taylor,  New  Zealand  and  its  In- ' 
habitants,  p.  3H. 


LAWS    OF   INHERITANCE. 


311 


I  on  liis 

ittended 
ispective 
bd  some- 
land  it 

oes  not 
;  in  the 
property 

a  given, 
!  owner- 
thrown 
oiig  the 
to  their 
le  rights 
branch 
How  till 

earliest 
1  not  be 
■  Servia, 
is  culti- 
divided. 
ed  their 
for  the 
up,  and 
as.'' 

lures  of 
le  indi- 

).  267. 

f  Man,  vol. 

ind  its  In- ' 


vidual.  The  common  rights  of  a  tribe  were  often  very  ox- 
tensive,  and  complicated  by  intermarriages.  The  eel  cuts, 
also,  are  strictly  preserved  as  private  property.  Children, 
as  soon  as  they  were  born,  had  a  right  to  a  share  of  the 
family  property. 

It  does  not,  however,  necessarily  follow  that  property  in 
land  involves  the  power  of  sale.  *  We  are  too  apt,'  says 
Campbell,*  *  to  forget  that  property  in  land,  as  a  transferable 
mercantile  commodity  absolutely  owned  and  passing  from 
hand  to  hand  like  any  chattel,  is  not  an  ancient  institution, 
but  a  modern  development,  reached  only  in  a  few  very  ad- 
vanced countries.'  *  It  may  be  said,'  he  adds,'  '  of  all  lauded 
tenures  in  India  previous  to  our  rule,  that  they  were  prac- 
tically not  transferable  by  sale;  and  that  only  certain 
classes  of  the  better-defined  claims  were  to  some  extent 
transferable  by  mortgage.  The  seizure  and  sale  of  land 
for  private  debt  was  wholly  and  utterly  unknown, — such  an 
idea  had  never  entered  into  the  native  imagination.' 

Still  less  does  the  possession  of  land  necessarily  imply 
the  power  of  testamentaiy  disposition,  and  we  find  as  a 
matter  of  fact  that  the  will  is  a  legal  process  of  very  late 
origin. 

I  have  already  mentioned  the  state  of  entire  lawlessness 
which  exists  in  Africa,  between  the  death  of  one  ruler  and 
the  election  of  his  successors. 

It  is  stated  that  formerly,  when  a  Greenlandcr  died,  if 
he  had  no  grown-up  children,  his  property  was  regarded 
as  having  no  longer  an  owner,  and  every  one  took  what  he 
chose,  or  at  least  what  he  could  get,  without  the  slightest 
'-ecfard  to  the  wretched  widow  or  children.^ 

There  is,  indeed,  no  more  interesting  chapter  in  Mr. 
Maine's  work  than  that  on  the  early  history  of  testa- 

'  Systems  of  Land  Tenuro,  p.  l/i'.  '  Ci,.v.*-z,  History  of  Greenland,  vol, 

2/iiW.  p.  171.  i.  p.  192. 


•-Vi 


'■ 


•  ; 


J 


m 


.  1 


I     1' 


01  n 


ABSEXCE    OF   WILLS. 


mentiir}'  succession.  He  points  out  that  the  essence  of 
a  ^vill,  as  now  understood,  is,  firstly,  that  it  should  take 
effect  at  death  ;  secondly,  that  it  may  be  preserved  secret ; 
and  thirdly,  that  it  is  revocable.  Yet  in  Homan  law  wills 
acquired  these  characteristic^  but  slowly  and  ^adually, 
and  in  the  earlier  stages  of  civilisation  wills  were  entirely 
unknoAvn. 

In  Athens  the  power  of  willing"  was  introduced  by  Solon, 
only,  however,  in  cases  when  a  person  died  childless.  The 
barbarians  on  the  north  of  the  Eoman  Empire  were,  says 
Maine,'  *  confessedly  strang'ers  to  any  such  conception  as 
thatof  a  Will.  The  best  authorities  agree  that  there  is  no 
trace  of  it  in  those  parts  of  their  written  codes  which  com- 
prise the  customs  practised  by  them  in  their  original  seats 
and  in  their  subsequent  settlement  on  the  edge  of  the 
Iloman  Empire.'  - 

And  again  in  studying  the  ancient  German  laws,  ^  one 
result  has  invariably  disclosed  itself — that  the  ancient 
nucleus  of  the  code  contains  no  trace  of  a  will.' ' 

The  Hindoos  also  were  entire'strangers  to  the  will.' 

It  is  therefore  remarkable  in  Australia,  '  a  father  divides 
his  land  during  his  lifetime,  fairly  apportioning  it  amongst 
his  several  sons,  and  at  as  early  an  age  as  fourteen  or 
fifteen  they  can  point  out  the  portion  which  they  are 
eventually  to  inherit.  If  the  males  of  a  family  become 
extinct,  the  male  children  of  the  daughters  inherit  their 
grandfather's  land.'^ 

Again,  in  Tahiti,  the  system  of  willing  was  (I  presume 
when  there  were  no  children),  in  full  forco,^  *  not  only  with 
reference  to  land,  but  to  any  other  kind  of  property.  Un- 
acquainted with  letters,  thoy  could  not  leave  a  written 


*  Loc.  cif.  p.  172. 
■''  Lot',  cif.  p.  196. 

'  Maine's    Ancient   Law,    p.    193. 
Campbell  in  Systems  of  Laud  Tenure, 


p.  177. 

*  Eyre's  Australia,  vol.  ii.  p.  238. 

*  Ellis'  Polynesian  Ecsearchesi,  voL 
ii.  p.  3'^2. 


I'l 


ROMAN   -WILLS. 


313 


Slice  of 
Id  take 
secret ; 
w  ■wills 
idually, 
mtirely 

J  Solon, 
3.  The 
re,  says 
Dtion  as 
;re  is  no 
ch  com- 
Lol  seats 
of  the 

«,   *  one 
an(;ient 

rill.' 
•  divides 
imongst 
•teen  or 
ley  are 
become 
it  their 

)resume 
ily  with 
Un- 
written 


p.  238. 
rches,  voL 


will,  but  during  a  season  of  illness,  those  jiossessing  pro- 
perty frequently  called  together  the  members  of  the  family, 
or  confidential  friends,  and  to  them  gave  directions  for  the 
disposal  of  their  effects  after  their  decease.  This  was 
considered  a  kind  of  sacred  charge,  and  was  usually 
executed  with  fidelity.' 

For  the  modem  will,  however,  we  are  mainly  indebted  to 
the  Romans.  At  first,  indeed,  even  Roman  wills,  if  so 
they  may  be  called,  were  neither  secret,  deferred,  nor 
revocable.  On  the  contrary,  they  were  made  in  public, 
before  not  less  than  five  witnesses,  they  took  effect  at  once, 
and  were  irrevocable.  Hence  it  is  probable  that  they  were 
only  made  just  before  death. 

It  seems  probable  that  the  power  of  willing  was  con- 
fined to  those  who  had  no  natural  heirs ;  such  -w  as  cer- 
tainly the  case  in  Athens.  So  also  in  Rome,  the  will 
does  not  seem  to  have  been  used  as  a  moans  of  disinheriting, 
or  of  effecting  an  unequal  distribution  of  the  property. 

Under  these  circumstances  it  appears  at  first  sight 
remarkable  that  the  Romans  should  have  rejjarded  for- 
feiture  of  testamentary  privileges  as  one  of  the  greatest 
jnisfortunes,  and  should  have  regarded  as  a  bitter  curse 
the  wish  that  a  man  might  die  intestate.  The  explanation 
of  this  seems  to  lie  in  the  ideas  of  family  relationship. 
Children  being  slaves,  and  as  such  incapable  of  holding 
property,*  it  would  naturally  be  the  wish  of  the  father  to 
emancipate  his  favourite  sons ;  but  as  soon  as  this  was 
effected  they  ceased  to  belong  to  the  family,  and  could  not 
consequently  inherit  as  heirs  at  law.  On  the  death  of  a 
Roman  citizen,  in  the  absence  of  a  will,  the  property  des- 
cended to  the  unemancipated  children,  and  after  them  to 
the  nearest  grade  of  the  agnatic  kindred.  Hence  the  same 
feeling  which  induced  a  Roman  to  emancipate  his  sons, 

'  Maine's  AncioutLaw,  p.  ISO. 


\. 


'i 


314 


RIGHTS   OP   CHILDREN. 


impelled  liim  also  to  make  a  •will,  for  if  lie  did  not  do  so, 
emnncipation  involved  disinheritance. 

Tlio  turning  point  in  the  history  of  the  Roman  will 
appears  to  have  been  the  period  at  which  the  presence  of 
the  true  heir  was  dispensed  with  when  the  will  was  made, 
"When  this  was  first  permitted  does  not  seem  to  be  exactly- 
known,  but  it  was  sanctioned  in  the  time  of  Gains,  who 
lived  during  the  reigns  of  the  Antonines ;  at  this  period 
also  wills  had  become  revocable,^  and  even  in  the  time  of 
Hadrian  a  testament  was  rendered  invalid  when  a  *  post- 
humus  suus '  arose,  i.e.  when  a  child  was  born  after  the 
will  was  made.' 

In  the  absence  of  wills,  the  interests  of  the  children  were 
in  some  cases  secured  by  customs  resembling  those  of  the 
Bussian  village  communities,  or  *  Mirs,'  in  which  children 
have  a  right  to  their  share  as  soon  as  they  are  born.  Nor 
are  such  rights  confined  to  communal  properties.  In  some 
countries  the  children  have  a  vested  right  to  a  portion  of 
their  father's  estate.  Here  therefore,  in  the  absence  of 
children,  the  will  is  replaced  by  adoption,  the  importance 
attached  to  which  is,  as  I  have  already  mentioned,  one  of 
the  reasons  for  the  inaccuracy  of  thought  among  the  lower 
races  on  the  subject  of  relationship. 

Among  the  Hindoos,  *  the  instant  a  son  is  bom  ^  he 
acquires  a  vested  right  in  his  father's  property,  which 
cannot  be  sold  without  recognition  of  his  joint-ownership. 
On  the  son's  attaining  full  age,  he  can  sometimes  compel 
a  partition  of  the  estate  even  against  the  consent  of  the 
parent;  and,  should  the  parent  acquiesce,  one  son  can 
always  have  a  partition  even  against  the  will  of  the  others. 
On  such  partition  taking  place,  the  father  has  no  advantage 
over  his  children,  except  that  he  has  two  of  the  shares 


'  Tomkin's  and  Lemon's  Commen- 
taries of  Gains,  com.  II,  sec.  cxliv. 


^  loc.  cit.  com.  11,  sec.  cxliii. 
'  Maine's  Ancient  Law,  p,  228. 


i 


THE    VASU. 


315 


►t  do  so, 

aan  "will 
sence  of 
as  made. 
3  exactly 

;ius,  wlio 
is  period 
e  time  of 
a  *  post- 
after  the 

Iren  were 
se  of  the 

cliildreii 
)rn.    Nor 

In  some 
)ortioii  of 
jsence  of 
iportance 
jd,  one  of 

he  lower , 

Dom^  he 
;y,  which 
miership. 
s  compel 
at  of  the 
son  can 
le  others, 
advantage 
he  shares 

cxliii. 

,  p,  228. 


instead  of  one.  The  ancient  law  of  the  German  tribes  was 
exceedingly  similar.  Tlio  AUod  or  domain  of  the  family 
was  the  joint  property  of  the  father  and  his  sons.'  Ac- 
cording to  ancient  German  law,  also,  children  were  co- 
proprietors  with  their  father,  and  the  family  endowment 
could  not  be  parted  with  except  by  general  consent. 

This  probably  explains  the  remarkable  custom  that  in 
Tahiti  the  king  abdicated  as  soon  as  a  son  was  born  to 
him  ;  and  landowners  under  similar  circumstances  lost  the 
fee-simple  of  their  land,  and  became  mere  trustees  for  the 
infant  possessors.' 

The  Basutos  have  a  strict  system  of  primogeniture,  and, 
even  during  the  father's  life,  the  eldest  son  has  consider- 
able power  both  over  the  property  and  the  youngt . 
children.'' 

The  same  system,  in  combination  with  inheritance 
through  females,  is  also  in  full  force  in  Feejee,  where  it  is 
known  as  Vasu.  The  word  means  a  nephew  or  niece, 
*  but  becomes  a  title  of  office  in  the  case  of  the  male,  who, 
in  some  localities,  has  the  extraordinary  privilege  of 
appropriating  whatever  he  chooses  belonging  to  his  uncle, 
or  those  under  his  rmcle's  power.''  This  is  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  parts  of  Feejee  despotism.  *  However  high  a 
chief  may  be,  if  he  has  a  nephew  he  has  a  master,'  and 
resistance  is  rarely  thought  of.  Thakonauto,  while  at  war 
with  his  uncle,  actually  supplied  himself  with  ammunition 
from  his  enemies'  stores. 

Perhaps  also  the  curious  custom  of  naming  the  father 
after  the  child,  may  have  originated  from  some  such  regu- 
lation. Thus  in  Australia,''  when  a  man's  eldest  child  is 
named,  the  father  takes  *  the  name  of  the  child,  Kadlit- 


■=  i 


•  Ellis'  Polj'nesian  Eesearches,  vol. 
ii.  pp.  346,  347. 

'^  Casalis'  Basutos,  p.  179. 


'  Fiji  and  the  Fijians,  vol.  i.  p.  3t. 
*  Eyre,  luc.  citi  vol.  ii.  p.  325. 


t 


81 G    THE    CUSTOM   OF   NAMINO    PARENTS    AFTER   CHILDREN 


Si. 


l)inna,  the  fiitlior  of  Kudli ;  tlio  mother  is  called  ICadling- 
angki,  or  mother  of  Kadli,  from  nganj^'ki,  a  female  or 
woman.'  This  custom  seems  very  general  throughout  the 
continent. 

In  America  wo  find  the  same  habit. ^  Thus  *  with  the 
Kutchin  the  father  takes  his  name  from  his  son  or  daughter, 
not  the  son  from  the  father  as  with  us.  The  father's 
name  is  formed  by  the  addition  of  the  word  tee  to  the  end 
of  the  son's  name;  for  instance,  Que-ech-et  may  have  a 
son  and  call  him  Sah-neu.  The  father  is  now  called  Sali- 
neu-tee,  and  the  former  name  of  Que-ech-et  is  forgotten.' 

In  Sumatra,  *  the  father,^  in  many  parts  of  the  country, 
particularly  in  Passam-mah,  is  distinguished  by  the  name 
of  his  first  child,  as  "  Pa-Ladin,"  or  "  Pa-Eindu,"  (Pa  for 
bapa,  signifying  "the  father  of")  and  loses,  in  this  acquired, 
his  own  proper  name.  This  is  a  singular  custom,  and 
surely  less  conformable  to  the  order  of  nature  than  that 
which  names  the  son  after  the  father.  There,  it  is  not  usual 
to  give  them  a  galar  on  their  marriage,  as  with  the  Rejangs, 
among  whom  the  filionymic  is  not  so  common,  though 
sometimes  adopted,  and  occasionally  joined  with  the 
galar ;  as  Radin-pa-Chirano.  The  women  never  change  the 
name  given  them  at  the  time  of  their  birth ;  yet  frequently 
they  are  called  through  courtesy,  from  their  eldest  child, 
"  Ma  si  ano,"  the  mother  of  such  an  one ;  but  rather  as  a 
polite  description  than  a  name.' 

As  a  general  rule  property  decendf.  to  the  eldest  son,  if 
any,  but  Duhalde  mentions  that  among  the  Tartars  the 
youngest  son  inherited  the  property,  because  the  elder 
ones  as  they  reach  manhood  leave  the  paternal  tent, 
and  take  with  them  the  quantity  of  cattle  which  their 
father  chooses  to  jjive  them.     A  similar  custom  existed 


^  Smithsonian    Report,     186G,     p. 
326. 


^  Marsdcn's  History   of   Sumatra, 
p.  286. 


LDRKN 

radling- 
malo  or 
liout  tlio 

v'itli  tlio 
aughter, 
father's 
the  end 
'  have  a 
led  Sah- 
•gotten.' 
country, 
lie  name 
"  (Pa  for 
icquired, 
torn,  and 
tian  that 
lot  usual 
Eejangs, 
though 
(rith    the 
lange  the 
■equently 
st  child, 
tlier  as  a 

st  son,  if 
rtars  the 
;he  elder 
lal  tent, 
ch  their 
existed 

f   Sumatra, 


THE    PUNISHMENT   OF    CRIME. 


317 


among  the  Mrua  of  the  Arrawak  hills  also,'  and  oven  in 
some  districts  of  our  own  country,  duriiig  antc-Norman 
times,  under  the  name  of  Borough  Englisli." 

There  are  also  cases,  as  for  instance  among  the  Hindoos, 
in  which  the  rule  of  primogeniture  is  followed  as  regards 
office  or  power,  politically,  but  not  with  reference  to 
property. 

Among  the  lower  races  of  men,  the  chiefs  scarcely  take 
any  cognisance  of  offences,  unless  they  relate  to  such  things 
as  directly  concern,  or  are  supposed  to  concern,  the  inter- 
ests of  the  community  generally.  "  As  regards  private  in- 
juries, every  one  must  protect  or  avenge  himself.  The 
administration  of  justice,  says  Du  T  ire,*  *  among  the 
Caribbians  is  not  exercised  by  the  captain,  nor  by  any 
mng-istrate ;  but,  as  it  is  among  the  Tapinambous,  he  who 
thinks  himself  injured  gets  such  satisfaction  of  his  adver- 
sary as  he  thinks  fit,  according  as  his  passion  dictates  to 
him,  or  his  strength  permits  him:  the  public  does  not 
concern  itself  at  all  in  the  punishment  of  criminals,  and  if 
any  one  among  them  suffers  an  injury  or  affront,  without 
endeavouring  to  revenge  himself,  he  is  slighted  by  all  the 
rest,  and  accounted  a  coward,  and  a  person  of  no  esteem.' 

Among  the  North  American  Indians,*  if  a  man  was  mur- 
dered, *  the  family  of  the  deceased  only  have  the  right  of 
taking  satisfaction  j  they  collect,  consult,  and  decree.  The 
rulers  of  a  town  or  of  the  nation  have  nothing  to  do  or  say 
in  the  business.'  Indeed,  it  would  seem  that  the  object  of 
legal  regulations  was  at  first  not  so  much  to  punish  the 
offender,  as  to  restrain  and  mitigate  the  vengeance  in- 
flicted by  the  aggrieved  party. 

'  Lewin's  Hill  Tracts  of  Chi  tagong,  p.   316.      LaLat   also  makes  a  very 

p.  194.  similar  statement.     Voyage  aux  Isles 

*  Wren  Hoskyns  in  Customs  of  Land  d'Anierique,  vol.  ii.  p  83. 
Tenure,  p.  104.  *  Trans.  Amcr.  Antiq.  Soc.  vol.  i. 

'  History  of  the  Carilby  Ifelands,  p.  2E1. 


318 


THE    LAWS   OF    rUOPERTY. 


i  i 


il  h 


The  amount  of  logiil  revenge,  if  I  may  so  call  it,  is  often 
strictly  regulateil,  even  where  wo  should  least  expect  to 
find  such  limitations.  Thus  in  Australia,'  crimes  *may 
be  compounded  for  by  the  criminal  ajipearing  and  submit- 
ting himself  to  the  ordeal  of  having  spears  thrown  at  him 
by  all  such  persons  as  conceive  themselves  to  have  been 
aggrieved,  or  by  permitting  spears  to  bo  thnist  through 
cei-tain  parts  of  his  body ;  such  as  through  the  thigh,  or 
the  calf  of  the  leg,  or  under  the  arm.  The  part  which  is 
to  be  pierced  by  a  spear,  is  fixed  for  all  common  crimes, 
and  a  native  who  has*  incurred  this  penalty  sometimes 
quietly  holds  out  his  leg  for  the  injured  party  to  thrust  his 
spear  through.'  So  strictly  is  the  amount  of  punishment 
limited,  that  if  in  inflicting  such  spear  wounds,  a  man, 
either  through  carelessness  or  from  any  other  cause,  ex- 
ceeded the  recognised  limits — if,  for  instance,  he  wounded 
the  femoral  artery — he  would  in  his  turn  become  liable  to 
punishment.  • 

Such  cases  as  these  seem  to  me  to  throw  great  light  on 
the  origin  of  the  idea  of  property.  Possession  do  facto 
needs  of  course  no  explanation.  When,  however,  any  rules 
were  laid  down  regulating  the  amount  or  mode  of  ven- 
geance which  might  be  taken  in  revenge  for  disturbance ; 
or  when  the  chief  thought  it  worth  while  himself  to  settle 
disputes  about  possession,  and  thus,  while  increasing  his 
own  dignity,  to  check  quarrels  which  might  be  injurious 
to  the  general  interests  of  the  tribe ;  the  natural  effect 
would  be  to  develop  the  idea  of  mere  possession  into  that 
of  property. 

Since,  then,  crimes  were  at  first  regarded  merely  as  per- 
sonal matters,  in  which  the  aggressor  and  the  victim  alone 
were  interested,  and  with  which  society  was  not  concerned, 
any  crime,  even  murder,  might  be  atoned  for  by  the  pay- 

'  Sir  G.  Grey's  Australiti,  vol.  ii.  p.  243. 


THE  LAWS  OP  morrRTY. 


\uo 


b,  is  often 
)xpcct  to 
les  *  may 
I  submit- 
^n  at  him 
ave  been 

through 
thigh,  or 
which  is 
n  crimes, 
ometimes 
lirust  his 
nishmeiit 
,  a  man, 
lause,  ex- 
wounded 

liable  to 

light  on 
de  facto 
any  rules 
!  of  ven- 
urbance ; 
■  to  settle 
[ising  his 
injurious 
ral  effect 
into  that 

ly  as  per- 
tim  alone 
)ncerned, 
the  pay- 


ment of  such  a  sum  of  money  as  satisfied  the  representa- 
tives of  the  murdered  man.  Tliis  payment  was  proportioned 
to  the  injury  done,  and  had  no  relation  to  the  crime  as  a 
crime.  Hence,  as  the  injury  was  the  same  whetlier  the 
death  was  accidental  or  designed,  so  also  was  the  penalty. 
Hence   our   word   *pay,*   which   conies   from   the    Latin 

*  pacare,'  to  appease  or  pacify. 

The  Eomans,  on  the  contrary,  based  any  claim  for  com- 
pensation on  the  existence  of  a  *  culpa ; '  and  hence  laid 
down  that  where  there  had  been  no  *  culpa,'  no  action 
for  reparation  could  lie.  This  led  to  vciy  inconvenient 
consequences.    Thus,  as  Lord  Kames*  has  pointed  out, 

*  Labco  scribit,  si  cum  vi  ventorum  navis  impulsa  csset 
in  funes  anchorarum  alterlus,  at  nauta)  funes  pra3cidissent ; 
si,  nuUo  alio  modo,  nisi  pra3cisis  funibus,  explicare  so  po- 
tuit,  nuUam  actionem  dandam;'  b.  29,  §  3,  ad  leg.  Aquil, 

*  Quod  dicitur  damnum  injuria  datum  Aquilia  persequi  sic 
erit  accipiendum,  ut  videatur  damnum  injuria  datum  quod 
cum  danmo  injuriam  attulerit;  nisi  magna  vi  cogente,  fuerit 
factum.  Ut  Celsus  scribit  circa  eum,  qui  incendii  arcendi 
gratia  vicinas  cedes  intercidit :  et  sive  pervenit  ignis,  sive 
antea  extinctus  est,  extimat  legis  Aquilioe  actionem  cessa^.  c* 
b.  49,  §  1,  eod.  In  English  thus :  In  the  opinion  of  Labeo, 
if  a  ship  is  driven  by  the  violence  of  a  tempest  among  the 
anchor-ropes  of  another  ship  and  the  sailors  cut  the  ropes, 
having  no  other  means  of  getting  free,  there  is  no  action 
competent.  The  Aquilian  law  must  be  understood  to  apply 
only  to  such  damage  as  carries  the  idea  of  an  injuiy  along 
with  it,  unless  such  injury  has  not  been  wilfully  done,  but 
from  necessity.  *  Thus  Celsus  puts  the  case,  of  a  person 
who,  to  stop  the  progress  of  a  fire,  pulls  down  his  neigh- 
bour's house ;  and  whether  the  fire  had  reached  that  house 
which  is  pulled  down,  or  was  extinguished  before  it  got 

'  History  of  Man,  vol.  iv.  p.  34. 


u 


^''  \i\ 


P 


t'l 


f 

ill 

mi'' 

■It 

i  »  k>f 

ai:    : 

i\,M 

•If-,: 

,V   -■■'J.!' 

''11 

''''Hi 

W 

IM] 

'r\ 

H 

i    ;! 

»K 

:|j 

'  '3 

:      ■  2 

*  ■«.> 

-^■', 

:    A 

'!S 

:i9U 

ii 

020 


MANIFEST   AND    NON-MANIFEST    THIEVES. 


to  it,  in  neither  case,  he  tliiuks,  will  an  action  be  com- 
petent from  the  Aquilian  law.' 

It  would  however  appear  that,  even  in  Roman  law,  the 
opposite  and  more  usual  principle  originally  prevailed. 
This  is  indicated,  for  instance,  by  the  great  difference 
in  the  penalties  imposed  by  ancient  laws  on  offenders 
caught  in  the  act,  and  those  only  detected  after  consider- 
able delay.  In  the  old  Roman  law,  as  in  that  of  some 
other  countries,  thieves  were  divided  into  manifest,  and 
non-manifest.  The  manifest  thief  who  was  caught  in  the 
act,  or  at  any  rate  with  the  stolen  goods  still  in  liis  pos- 
session, became,  according  to  the  law  of  the  twelve  tables, 
the  slave  of  the  person  robbed,  or  if  he  was  already  a  slave, 
was  put  to  death.  The  non-manifest  thief,  on  the  other 
hand,  was  only  liable  to  return  double  the  value  of  the 
goods  he  had  stolen.  Subsequently,  the  7ery  severe 
punishment  in  the  case  of  the  manifest  thief  was  miti- 
gated, but  he  was  still  forced  to  pay  four  times  the  value 
of  what  he  had  stolen,  or  twice  as  much  as  the  non-mani- 
fest thief. 

The  same  principle  was  followed  by  the  North  American 
Indians.'  Again,  in  the  German  and  Anglo-Saxon  codes, 
a  thief  caught  in  the  act  might  be  killed  on  the  spot. 
Thus  the  law  followed  the  old  principles  of  private  ven- 
geance, and  in  settling  the  amount  of  punishment,  took  as 
a  guide  the  measure  of  revenge  likely  to  be  taken  by  an 
aggrieved  person  under  the  circumstances  of  the  case.^ 

In  the  South  Sea  Islands,  according  to  WillJams,'  cases 
of  theft  were  seldom  brought  before  the  king  or  chiefs, 
but  the  people  avenged  their  own  injuries.  The  rights  of 
retaliation,  however,  had  almost  a  legal  force,  for  *  although 

'  Trans.  Amer.  Antiq.  Soc.  vol.  i.         '  Polynesian  Rcsoarclies,  vol.  ii.  pp. 
p.  285.  369,  372. 

"  See  Maine,  he.  cit.  p.  378. 


THE    WERGILD. 


321 


be  com- 

n  law,  the 
prevailed, 
difference 

offenders 

vonsider- 
,t  of  some 
ifest,  and 
^ht  in  the 
1  his  pos- 
Ive  tables, 
ly  a  slave, 

the  other 
ue  of  the 
ry  severe 
was  miti- 

the  value 
lon-mani- 

American 
ton  codes, 
the  spot, 
ivate  ven- 
t,  took  as 
en  by  an 
case.' 
ns,'  cases 
or  chiefs, 
I  rights  of 
although 

;s,  vol.  ii.  pp. 


the  paity  thus  i^lundered  them,  they  would  not  attemjitto 
jjrevent  the  seizure :  liad  they  done  so,  the  population  of 
the  district  would  have  assisted  those,  who,  according  to 
the  established  custom,  were  thus  punishing  the  aggressors. 
Such  was  the  usual  method  resorted  to  for  punishing  tlio 
petty  thefts  committed  among  themselves.' 

So  also  as  regards  personal  injuries.  Among  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  the  '  wergild,'  or  fine  for  injuries,  was  evidently 
a  substitute  for  personal  vengeance.  Every  part  of  the 
body  had  a  recognised  value,  even  the  teeth,  nails,  and 
hair.  Nay,  the  value  assigned  to  the  latter  was  propor- 
tionately very  high;  the  loss  of  the  beard  being  estimated 
at  twenty  shillings,  while  the  breaking  of  a  thigh  was  only 
fixed  at  twelve.  In  other  cases  also  the  effect  on  personal 
appearance  seems  to  have  carried  great  weight,  for  the  loss 
of  a  front  tooth  was  estimated  at  six  shillings,  while  the 
fracture  of  a  rib  was  only  fixed  at  three.  In  the  case  of  a 
slave  the  fine  was  paid  to  the  owner. 

The  amount  varied  according  to  the  rank  of  the  person 
injured.  All  society  below  the  royal  family  and  the  Eal- 
dorman  was  divided  into  three  classes ;  the  Tywhind  man, 
or  Ceorl,  was  estimated  at  200  shillings  according  to  the 
laws  of  Mercia ;  the  Sixhind  man  at  GOO  shillings,  while 
the  death  of  a  royal  thane  was  estimated  at  1,200 
shillings.' 

The  severity  of  early  codes,  and  the  uniformity  in  the 
amounts  of  punishment  which  characterises  them,  is  pro- 
bably due  to  the  same  cause.  An  individual  who  felt 
himself  aggrieved  would  not  weigh  very  philosophically  the 
amount  of  punishment  which  he  was  entitled  to  inflict ;  and 
no  doubt  when  in  any  community  some  chief,  in  advance  ot 
his  time,  endeavoured  to  substitute  public  law  for  private 


'  Student.  Hum.  p.  7i.     ITtiUuni,  vol,  i.  p.  272. 


15 


" 


822 


GENERAL   CONCLUSION. 


m    i 


'u^ 


ii\ 


\'"  ■        3 


vengeance,  liis  object  would  be  to  induce  those  wlio  had 
cause  of  complaint  to  apply  to  the  law  for  redress,  rather 
than  to  avenge  themselves ;  which  of  course  would  not  be 
the  case  if  the  penalty  allotted  by  the  law  was  much 
less  than  that  which  custom  would  allow  them  to  inflict 
for  themselves. 

Subsequently,  when  punishment  was  substituted  for 
pecuniary  compensation,  the  same  rule  was  at  first  applied, 
and  the  distinction  of  intention  was  overlooked.  Nay,  so 
long  had  ^  he  importance  of  intention  been  dih  regarded, 
that  although  it  is  now  recognised  in  our  crimiml  courts, 
yet,  as  Mr.  Bain  points  out,^  '  a  moral  stigma  is  still 
attached  to  intellectual  error  by  man;.^  people,  and  even  by 
men  of  cultivation.' 

In  this,  as  in  so  many  of  our  other  ideas  and  tastes,  we 
are  still  influenced  by  the  condition  of  our  ancestors  in 
bygone  ages.  What  that  condition  was  I  have  in  this 
work  attempted  to  indicate,  believing  as  I  do  that  the 
earlier  mental  stages  throuo-li  which  the  human  race  has 
passed,  are  illustrated  by  the  condition  of  existing,  or 
recent,  savages.  The  history  of  the  human  race  has,  I 
feel  satisfied,  on  the  whole  been  one  of  progress.  I  do 
not  of  course  mean  to  say  that  every  race  is  necessarily 
advancing :  on  the  contrary,  most  of  the  lower  ones  are 
almost  stationary ;  and  there  are,  no  doubt,  cases  in  which 
nations  have  fallen  back;  but  it  seems  an  alnrost  invariable 
inile  that  such  races  are  dying  out,  while  those  which 
are  stationary  in  condition,  are  stationary  in  numbers 
also;  on  the  other  hand,  improving  nations  increase  in 
jiumbers,  so  that  they  always  encroach  on  less  progres- 
sive races. 

In  conclusion  then,  while  I  do  not  mean  for  a  moment  to 

•   Mexitiil  a'lil  Mural  Science,  p.  7)8. 


GENERAL   CONCLUSION. 


323 


wlio  liad 
s,  rather 
d  not  be 
IS  mucli 
to  inflict 

uted  for 
i  applied, 
Nay,  so 
regarded, 
[J  courts, 
a  is  still 
1  even  by 

tastes,  we 
estors   in 
'^e  in  tliis 
that  tlio 
L  race  1ms 
Lsting,    or 
ice  has,  1 
ss.     I  do 
Dcessarily 
ones  are 
in  which 
invariable 
Dse  which 
numbers 
licrease  in 
s  progres- 

noment  to 


deny  that  there  are  cases  in  which  nations  have  retro- 
graded, I  regard  these  as  exceptional  instances.  The  facts 
and  arguments  mentioned  in  this  work  afford,  I  think, 
strong  grounds  for  the  following  conclusions ;  namely, — 

That  existing  savages  are  not  the  descendants  of  civilised 
ancestors. 

That  the  primitive  condition  of  man  was  one  of  utter 
barbarism. 

That  from  this  condition  several  races  have  indepen- 
dently raised  themselves. 

These  views  follow,  I  think,  from  strictly  scientific  con- 
siderations. We  shall  not  be  the  less  inclined  to  adopt 
them,  on  account  of  the  cheering  prospects  which  they 
hold  out  for  the  future. 

In  the  closing  chapter  of  *  Prehistoric  Times,'  while 
fully  admitting  the  charms  of  savage  life,  I  have  en- 
deavoured to  point  out  the  immense  advantages  which  we 
enjoy.  Here  I  will  only  add  that  if  the  past  history  of 
man  has  been  one  of  deterioration,  we  have  but  a  ground- 
less expectation  of  future  improvement :  on  the  other  hand, 
if  the  past  has  been  one  of  progress,  we  may  fairly  hope  that 
the  future  will  be  so  also ;  that  the  blessings  of  civilisation 
will  not  only  be  extended  to  other  countries  and  to  other 
nations,  but  that  even  in  our  own  land  they  will  be  rendered 
more  general  and  more  equable ;  so  that  we  shall  not  see 
before  us  always,  as  now,  countrymen  of  our  own  living  in 
our  very  midst  a  life  worse  than  that  of  a  savage  ;  neither 
enjoying  the  rough  advantages  and  real,  though  coarse, 
pleasures  of  savage  life,  nor  yet  availing  themselves  of  the 
far  higher  and  more  noble  opportunities  wliioh  lie  within 
the  reach  of  civilised  Man. 


n 


:  I 


m- 

Im 

mm 

1    I 


APPENDIX. 


-•■>•- 


ON    THE    PKOIITIVE    CONDITION    OF   MAN. 

PART  I. 

Bkino  the  substance  of  a  Paper  read  hefore  the  Buitisu  Association 

AT  Dundee. 

SIDE  by  side  with  the  different  opinions  as  to  the  origin  of  man, 
there  are  two  opposite  views  with  reference  to  the  primitive  Cfon- 
dition  of  the  first  men,  or  first  beings  worthy  to  be  so  called.  Many 
writers  have  considered  that  man  was  at  first  a  mere  savage,  and  that 
the  course  of  history  has  on  the  whole  been  a  progress  towards  civili- 
sation, though  at  times — and  at  some  times  for  centuries — some  races 
have  been  stationary,  or  even  have  retrograded.  Other  afuthors,  of 
no  less  eminence,  have  taken  a  diametrically  opposite  view.  Accord 
ing  to  them,  man  was,  from  the  commencement,  pretty  much  what 
he  is  at  present ;  if  possible,  even  more  ignorant  of  the  arts  and 
sciences  than  now,  but  with  mental  qualities  not  inferior  to  our 
own.  Savages  they  consider  to  be  the  degenerate  descendants  of  far 
superior  ancestors.  Of  the  recent  supporters  of  this  theory,  the  lato 
Archbishop  of  Dublin  was  amongst  the  most  eminent. 

Dr,  Whately  enunciates  his  opinions  in  the  following  words :' — 
*  We  have  no  reason  to  believe  that  any  community  ever  did, 
or  ever  can  emerge,  unassisted  by  external  helps,  from  a  state  of 
utter  barbarism  unto  anything  that  can  be  called  civilisation.'  '  Man 
has  not  emerged  from  the  savage  state ;  the  progress  of  any  com- 
munity in  civilisation,  by  its  own  internal  means,  must  always  have 
begun  from  a  condition  removed  from  that  of  complete  barbarism, 
out  of  which  it  does  not  appear  that  men  ever  did  or  can  raise 
themselves.' 

Thus,  he  adds,  '  the  ancient  Germans,  who  cultivated  corn — though 

'  Whately.      Political  Economy,  p.  68. 


1 


32G 


DIFFICULTY   OF   OBTAINING 


WKmrn 

1 

Hn 

•"3 

II' 

1'  i 

|ra|»:iii 

their  agriculture  was  prolxiMy  in  a  very  rude  state — wlio  not  only 
had  numerous  herds  of  cattle,  but  enij)loyed  the  labour  of  brutes, 
and  even  made  use  of  cavalry  in  their  wars,  .  .  .  these  cannot  with 
propriety  be  reclioned  savages ;  or  if  they  are  to  be  so  called  (for  it 
is  not  worth  while  to  dispute  about  a  word),  then  1  would  admit 
that,  in  this  sense,  men  may  advance,  and  in  fact  have  advanced,  by 
their  own  unassisted  efforts,  fro  n  the  savage  to  the  civilised  state.' 
This  limitation  of  the  term  '  savage  '  to  the  very  lowest  representatives 
of  the  human  race  no  doubt  renders  Dr.  Whately's  theory  more 
tenable  by  increasing  the  difficulty  of  bringing  forward  conclusive 
evidence  against  it.  The  Archbishop,  indeed,  expresses  hin)self 
throughout  his  argument,  as  if  it  would  be  easy  to  produce  the 
required  evidence  in  opposition  to  his  theory,  supposing  that  any 
race  of  salvages  ever  had  raised  themselves  to  a  state  of  civilisation. 
The  manner,  however,  in  which  he  has  treated  the  case  of  the  !Man- 
dans — a  tribe  of  North  American  Indians — eiTectually  disposes  of 
this  hypothesis.  This  unfortunate  people  is  described  as  having 
been  decidedly  more  civilised  than  those  by  which  they  were 
surrounded.  Having,  then,  no  neighbours  more  advanced  than 
themselves,  they  were  quoted  as  furnishing  an  instance  of  savages 
who  had  civilised  themselves  without  external  aid.  In  answer  to 
this.  Archbishop  Whately  asks, — 

*  1st.  How  do  we  know  that  these  IMandans  were  of  the  same  race 
as  their  neighbours  ?  ' 

'  2ndly.  How  do  we  knoAV  that  theirs  is  not  the  original  level  from 
which  the  other  tribes  have  fallen  ?  ' 

*  3rdly  and  lastly.  Supposing  that  the  Mandans  did  emerge  fj'om 
the  savage  state,  how  do  we  know  that  this  may  not  have  been 
through  the  aid  of  some  strangers  coming  among  them — like  the 
Manco-Capac  of  Peru — from  some  more  civilised  country,  perhaps 
long  before  the  days  of  Columbus  ?  ' 

Supposing,  however,  for  a  moment,  and  for  the  sake  of  ai'gument, 
that  the  Mandans,  or  any  other  race,  \\<ire  originally  savages,  and  had 
civilised  themselves,  it  would  still  be  manifestly — from  the  very 
nature  of  the  case — impossible  to  bring  forward  the  kind  of  evidence 
demanded  by  Dr.  Whately.  No  doubt  he  '  may  confidently  affirm 
that  Ave  find  no  one  recorded  instance  of  a  tribe  of  savages,  properly 
so  styled,  rising  into  a  civilised  state  without  instruction  and 
assistance  fi-om  a  people  already  civilised.'  Starting  with  the  pro- 
viso that  savages,  properly  so  styled,  are  ignorant  of  letters,  and 


not  only 

brutes, 
not  with 
d  (for  it 

d  admit 
need,  hy 
;d  state' 
ntatives 
:y  more 
nclusive 

himself 
uce  the 
hat  any 

isation. 
le  Jlan- 
)oses  of 

having 
ly  were 
3d  than 
savngea 
swcr  to 

.me  race 

t'cl  from 

ge  fj-om 
e  been 
ike  the 
perhaps 

jiiment, 
md  had 
e  very 
v^ideuce 
'  affirm 
roperly 
)n  and 
le  pro- 
ps, and 


CONCLUSIVE    EVIDENCE. 


^27 


laying  it  down  as  a  condition  that  no  civilised  exani]/le  should  be 
placed  before  them,  the  existence  of  any  such  record  is  an  impos- 
sibility :  its  very  presence  would  destroy  its  value.  In  another 
passage,  Arclibishop  Whately  says,  indeed,  '  If  man  generally,  or 
some  particular  race,  be  capable  of  self-civilisation,  in  either  case  it 
may  be  expected  that  some  record,  or  tradition,  or  monument  of  the 
actual  occurrence  of  such  an  event  should  be  found.'  So  far  from 
this,  the  existence  of  any  such  record  would,  according  to  the  very 
hypothesis  itself,  be  impossible.  Traditions  are  short-lived  and 
untrustworthy.  A  'monument'  which  could  prove  the  actual 
jccurrence  of  a  race  capable  of  self- civilisation,  I  confess  myself 
unable  to  conceive.  What  kind  of  a  monument  would  the  Arch- 
bishop accept  as  proving  that  the  people  by  whom  it  was  made 
had  been  originally  savage  ?  that  they  had  raised  themselves,  and 
had  never  been  influenced  by  strangers  of  a  superior  race  ? 

But,  says  Archbishop  Whately,  'We  have  accounts  of  various 
savage  tribes,  in  different  parts  of  the  globe,  who  have  been  visited 
from  time  to  time  at  considerable  intervals,  but  have  had  no  settled 
intercourse  with  civilised  people,  and  who  appear  to  continue,  as  far 
as  can  be  ascertained,  in  the  same  uncultivated  condition  ; '  and  he 
adduces  one  case,  that  of  the  New  Zealanders,  who  'seem- to  have 
been  in  quite  as  advanced  a  state  when  Tasman  discovert!  the 
country  in  1642,  as  they  were  when  Cook  visited  it  ae  hundred 
and  twenty-seven  years  after.'  We  have  been  accustomed  to  see 
around  us  an  improvement  so  rapid  that  we  forget  how  short  a 
period  a  century  is  in  the  history  of  the  human  race.  Even  taking 
the  ordinary  chronology,  it  is  evident  that  'f  in  C,000  years  a 
given  race  has  only  progressed  from  a  state  of  utter  savagery  to  the 
condition  of  the  Australian,  we  could  not  expect  to  find  much  change 
in  one  more  century.  Many  a  fishing  village,  even  on  our  own 
coast,  is  in  very  nearly  the  same  condition  as  it  was  one  hundred 
and  twenty-seven  years  ago.  Moreover,  I  might  fairly  answer  that, 
according  to  Whately 's  own  definition  of  a  savage  state,  the  New 
Zealanders  would  certainly  be  excluded.  They  cultivated  the 
ground,  they  had  domestic  animals,  they  constructed  elaborate  forti- 
fications and  made  excellent  canoes,  and  were  certainly  not  in  a  state 
of  utter  barbarism.  Or  I  might  argue  that  a  short  visit,  like  that  of 
Tasman,  could  give  little  insight  into  the  true  condition  of  a  people. 
I  am,  however,  the  less  disposed  to  question  the  statement  made  by 
Archbishop  Whately,  because  the  fact  that  many  races  are  now 


328 


THE    STATIONARY   CONDITION    OF   SAVAGES. 


iiv^r 


I?; 


i 


ii-  '■■ 


jiractically  stationary  is  in  reality  an  argument  against  llio  llicory  df 
degradation,  and  not  against  that  of  progress.  Civilised  races  ai'o 
tlic  descendants  of  races  which,  I  believe,  -wore  once  in  a  state  of 
barbarism.  On  the  contrary,  argue  our  opponents,  savages  are 
the  descendants  of  civilised  races,  and  have  sunk  to  their  present 
condition.  But  Archbishop  "Wliately  admits  that  the  civilised 
races  are  still  rising,  while  the.  savages  arc  stationary;  and,  oddly 
enough,  seems  to  regard  this  as  an  argument  in  support  of  the  very 
luitenable  proposition,  that  the  difference  between  the  two  is  due,  not 
to  the  progress  of  the  one  set  of  races — a  progress  which  every  one 
admits — b  to  t-  legradation  of  those  whom  he  himself  maintains 
to  be  Stat:''-  '.iiv  The  delusion  is  natural,  and  like  that  which 
every  one  m  '  '''>,;■■'  sometimes  experienced  in  looking  out  of  a 
train  in  motion,  Avhen  >'  woods  and  fields  seem  to  be  flying  from 
us,  wdiereas  we  know  that  in  reality  we  are  moving  and  they  are 
stationary. 

But  it  is  argued.  '  if  man,  Avhen  first  created,  was  Icfl:,  like  tlio 
brutes,  to  the  unuided  exercise  of  those  natural  powers  of  body  and 
mind  which  a:e  commor.  to  the  European  and  to  the  New  Iloliandei-, 
how  comes  it  that  the  European  is  not  now  in  the  condition  of  the 
New  Hollander?'  The  answer  to  this  is,  I  think,  the  following: — In 
tlie  first  place,  Australia  possesses  neither  cereals  nor  any  animals 
wdiicli  can  be  domesticated  with  advantage ;  and  in  the  second,  we 
find  even  in  the  same  family — among  children  of  the  same  parents — 
the  most  opposite  dispositions  ;  in  the  siime  nation,  there  are  families 
of  high  character,  and  others  in  which  every  member  is  more  or  less 
criminal.  But  in  this  case,  as  in  the  last,  the  Archbishop's  argument, 
if  good  at  all,  is  good  against  his  own  view.  It  is  like  an  Australian 
boomerang,  which  recoils  upon  its  owner.  The  Archbishop  believed 
in  the  unity  of  the  human  race,  and  argued  that  man  was  originally 
civilised  (in  a  certain  sense).  '  IIow  comes  it,  then,'  I  might  ask 
him,  *  that  the  New  Hollander  is  not  now  in  the  condition  of  the 
European  ?  '  In  another  passage.  Archbishop  Whately  quotes,  W'ilh 
approViation,  a  passage  from  President  Smith,  of  the  college  of  New 
Jersey,  who  says  that  man,  '  cast  out  an  orphan  of  nature,  naked 
and  helpless  into  the  savage  forest,  must  have  perished  before  he 
could  have  learned  how  to  supply  his  most  immediate  and  urgent 
wants.  Suppose  liim  to  have  been  created,  or  to  have  started  into 
being,  one  knows  not  how,  in  the  full  strength  of  his  bodily  powers, 
how  lon<5  must  it  have  been  before  he  could  have  known  the  proper 


f't'i 


NO    EVIDENCE    OF    EARLIER   CIVILISATION. 


329 


m 


llicory  (if 

races  jiro 
a  statu  of 
vages  aro 
ir  present 
civilised 
nd,  oddly 

tlje  very 
s  due,  not 
every  ono 
maintains 
at  ■which 

out  of  a 
ying  from 

tliey  arc 


,  like  tliG 
body  and 
Icelander, 
on  of  tlio 
'ing: — In 
'■  animals 
2cond,  WQ 
parents — 
e  families 
re  or  less 
rgument, 
-ustralian 
believed 
)riginally 
night  ask 
)n  of  the 
tea,  with 
!  of  New 
■e,  naked 
efore  he 
d  urgent 
ted  into 
powers 
e  j)roper 


use  of  his  liml)a,  or  liow  to  apply  them  to  climb  the  tree ! '  &.c.  itc. 
Exactly  the  same,  however,  might  be  said  of  the  gorilla  or  the 
chimpanzee,  which  certainly  are  not  the  degraded  descendants  of 
civilised  ancestors. 

Having  thus  very  briefly  considered  the  argimients  brought 
forward  by  Archbishop  Whately,  I  will  proceed  to  state,  also  very 
briefly,  some  facts  which  seem  to  militate  against  the  view  advocated 
by  him. 

Firstly,  I  will  endeavour  to  show  that  there  arc  indications  of 
progress  even  among  savages. 

Secondly,  That  among  the  most  civilised  nations  there  aro  traces 
of  original  barbarism. 

The  Archbishop  supposes  that  men  were,  from  the  beginning, 
herdsmen  and  cultivators.  We  know,  however,  that  the  Australians, 
North  and  South  Americans,  and  several  other  r  re  or  less  siivage 
races,  living  in  countries  eminently  suited  to  onx  d  estic  animals, 
and  to  the  cultivation  of  cereals,  were  yet  ent*  'ly  i^,  )rant  both  of 
the  one  and  the  other.  It  is,  I  think,  imjir  "  'b  3  that  any  race  of 
men  who  had  once  been  agriculturists  am  h  ^rdsmen  should 
entirely  abandon  pursuits  so  easy  and  adv  ^ageous  ;  and  it  is  still 
more  improbable  that,  if  we  accept  Usher's  ^  *;r^  limited  chronology, 
all  tradition  of  such  a  change  should  be  lost.  IMoreover,  even  if  in 
the  course  of  time  the  descendants  of  the  present  colonists  in  (say) 
America  or  Australia  were  to  fall  into  such  a  state  of  barbarism,  still 
lierds  of  wild  cattle,  descended  from  those  imported,  would  probably 
continue  to  live  in  those  countries ;  and  even  if  these  were  exter- 
minated, their  skeletons  would  testify  to  their  previous  existence; 
whereas,  we  know  that  not  a  single  bone  of  the  ox  or  of  the 
domestic  sheep  has  been  found  either  in  Australia  or  in  America. 
The  same  argument  applies  to  the  horse,  since  the  fossil  horse  of 
South  America  did  not  belong  to  the  same  species  as  our  domestic  race. 
So,  again,  in  the  case  of  plants.  "We  do  not  know  that  any  of  our 
cultivated  cereals  would  survive  in  a  wild  state,  though  it  is  highly 
probable  that,  perhaps  in  a  modified  form,  they  would  do  so.  But 
there  are  many  other  plants  which  follow  in  the  train  of  man,  and 
by  which  the  botany  of  South  America,  Australia,  and  New  Zealand, 
has  been  almost  as  profoundly  modified  as  their  ethnology  has  been 
by  tiie  arrival  of  the  white  man.  The  Maoris  have  a  melancholy 
proverb,  that  the  Maoris  disappear  before  the  white  man,  just 
as   the   white   man's   rat   destroys  the  native  rat,    the   European 


030      ABSENCE    OF    TOTTEItY    AND    DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 


u 


L     li' 


fly  drives  away  tlio  Maori  Ily,  uudtl.e  clover  kills  the  New  Zciilaml 
fern. 

A  very  interesting  paper  on  lliis  subject,  by  Dr.  Hooker,  wliose 
authority  no  one  will  qiiestion,  is  contained  in  the  *  Natural  Ili.stoiy 
licview'  for  18G1: — '  In  Australia  and  New  Zealand,'  he  says,  'lor 
instiuice,  the  noisy  train  of  English  emigration  is  not  more  sm-ely 
doing  its  work,  than  the  stealthy  tide  of  English  ■weeds,  which  are 
creejjing  over  the  surface  of  the  waste,  cultivated,  and  virgin  soil, 
in  annually  increasing  numbers  of  genera,  8i)ccles,  and  individuals. 
Apropos  of  this  subject,  a  correspondent,  W.  T.  Locke  Travers,  Esq., 
F.L.S.,  a  most  active  New  Zealand  botanist,  writing  from  Canter- 
bury, says,  "  You  would  be  surprised  at  the  rapid  8j)read  of  European 
and  foreign  plants  in  this  country.  All  along  the  sides  ot  the  main 
lines  of  road  through  the  plains,  a  Foli/'jninim  (aviculare),  called 
cow-grass,  grows  most  luxuriantly,  the  roots  sometimes  two  feet  in 
depth,  and  the  plants  spreading  over  an  area  from  lour  to  live  feet  in 
diameter.  The  dock  {Itmncx  ohtusifolius  or  li.  crispiis)  is  to  bo 
found  in  every  river-bed,  extending  into  the  valleys  of  the  movmtain- 
rivers,  until  these  become  mere  torrents.  The  sow-thistle  is  spread 
all  over  the  country,  growing  luxuriantly  nearly  up  to  G,000  feet. 
The  watercress  increases  in  our  still  rivers  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
threaten  to  choke  them  altogether."  '  The  cardoon  of  tlie  Argentine 
Itcpublics  is  another  remarkable  instance  of  the  siune  fact.  We  may 
therefore  safely  assume  that  if  Australia,  New  Zealand,  or  South 
America  had  ever  been  peopled  by  a  race  of  herdsmen  and  agri- 
culturists, the  fauna  and  flora  of  those  countries  Avould  almost 
inevitably  have  given  evidence  of  the  fact,  and  differed  much  from 
the  condition  in  which  they  were  discovered.  We  may  also  assert, 
as  a  general  proposition,  that  no  weapons  or  implements  of  metal 
liave  ever  been  found  in  any  country  inhabited  by  savages  wholly 
ignorant  of  metallurgy.  A  still  stronger  case  is  afforded  by  pot- 
tery. Pottery  is  very  indestructible ;  when  used  at  all,  it  is  always 
abundant,  •  and  it  possesses  two  qualities — those,  namely,  of  being 
easy  to  break  and  yet  difficult  to  destroy,  which  render  it  very 
valuable  in  an  archasological  point  of  view.  Moreover  it  is,  in  most 
cases,  associated  with  burials.  It  is  therefore  a  very  significant 
fact,  that  no  fragment  of  pottery  has  ever  been  found  in  Australia, 
New  Zealand,  or  the  Polynesian  Islands.  It  seems  to  me  extremely 
improbable  that  an  art  so  easy  and  so  useful  should  ever  have  been 
lost  by  any  race  of  men.    Moreovtr,  this  argument  applies  to  several 


f.r  1 


!;;  i! 


LS. 

V  Zealand 

or,  whose 
il  History 
says,  *  ihr 
TO  suroly 
vliicli  aro 
rgin  soil, 
[lividual.H. 
ers,  Esij., 
I  Cautur- 
Eiiropean 
tlie  main 
•e),  called 

0  feet  in 
vo  feet  in 

is  to  be 
lountain- 
is  spread 
,000  feet. 
Biit  as  to 
Argentine 
We  may 
or  Souih 
nd  agri- 

1  almost 
ich  from 
!io  assert, 
of  metal 
s  wholly 

by  pot- 
s  always 
of  being 
'  it  very 

in  most 
jnifieant 
ustralia, 
:tremely 
ve  been 
'  several 


INDICATIONS    OP    rROGP.KSS    AMONG    SAVAGKH. 


301 


s     I 


other  arts  and  instn'.mcnfs.  I  vill  mention  only  two,  though 
Boveral  others  miglit  be  brought  forward.  The  art  of  spinning  antl 
the  use  of  the  bow  aro  quite  unknown  to  aany  races  of  savages,  and 
yet  would  hardly  bo  likely  -o  have  been  abandoned  when  on(!o 
known.  The  absence  of  architectural  remains  in  these  countries  is 
another  argument.  Archbishop  "NVhately,  indeed,  claims  this  as 
l)(!ing  in  his  favour;  but  the  absence  of  monuments  in  a  countiy  is 
surely  indicative  of  barbarism,  and  not  of  civilisiition. 

The  mental  condition  of  sivvages  also  seems  to  mo  to  sjx-ak 
strongly  against  the  'degrading'  theory.  Not  only  do  the  religions 
of  tlie  low  races  appear  to  be  indigenous,  l)ut,  as  already  shown' — 
according  to  many  trustworthy  witnesses,  merchants,  philosophers, 
naval  men,  and  missionaries  alike — there  are  many  races  of  men 
who  are  altogether  destitute  of  a  religion.  The  cases  are,  perhaps, 
less  numerous  than  they  are  asserted  to  be ;  but  some  of  them  rest 
on  good  evidence.  Yet  I  feel  it  difficult  to  l)elieve  that  any  people 
who  once  possessed  a  religion  woidd  ever  entirely  lose  it.  Keligion 
appeals  so  strongly  to  the  hopes  and  fears  of  men,  it  taiics  so  deej)  a 
liold  on  most  minds,  in  its  higlci-  forms  it  is  so  great  a  consolation 
in  times  of  sorrow  and  sickness,  that  I  can  hardly  think  any  nation 
woidd  ever  abandon  it  altogether.  ]\[oreover,  it  produces  a  race  of 
men  who  are  interested  in  maintaining  its  influence  and  authority. 
Where,  therefore,  we  find  a  race  which  is  now  ignorant  of  religion, 
1  cannot  but  assume  that  it  has  always  been  so. 

I  will  now  proceed  to  mention  a  few  cases  in  which  some 
improvement  does  appear  to  have  taken  place,  though,  as  a  general 
rule,  it  may  be  observed  tliat  the  contact  of  two  races  tends  to 
depress  rather  than  to  raise  the  lower  one.  According  to  Mac- 
Gillivray,  the  Australians  of  port  Essington,  who,  like  all  their 
fellow-countrymen,  had  formerly  bark-canoes  only,  have  now  com- 
pletely abandoned  them  for  others  hollowed  out  of  the  trunk  of  a 
tree,  which  they  buy  from  the  Malays.  The  inhabitants  of  the 
Andaman  Islands  have  recently  introduced  outriggers.  The 
Bachapins,  when  visited  by  Burchell,  had  just  conmienced  working 
iron.  According  to  Burton,  the  Wajiji  negroes  have  recently 
learned  to  make  brass.  In  Tahiti,  when  visited  by  Captain  Cook, 
the  largest  moral,   or  burial-jjlace,  was  that  erected  for  the  then 

The    Tahitians,    also,    had    then    very    recently 


reignmg    queen. 


Ante,  p.  121  ;  and  Prehistoric  Times,  2iul  cd.  p.  561. 


;i 


HAVAORS    NOT    IN'CA  I'AIUiF,    OF    riVILISATION". 


mi 

jiliaiidoiiod  tlio  liiililt  of  (•.iiinlbuliMm.  81i;i-gwaw-ko(»-.slnk,  nri 
Ottawwjvw,  who  livod  at  llu;  Itcginiiiiij:  of  tins  century,  first  intro- 
duced the  cultivation  of  corn  anionj^  the  Ojihbeways.'  Moreover, 
there  are  certain  facts  which  speak  fur  tlietnselves.  Some  of  the 
American  races  cultivated  the  potato.  Now,  the  jKitato  is  an 
American  plant,  and  we  liave  hero,  therefore,  clear  evidence  of  a 
step  in  advance  made  by  these  tribes.  Again,  the  Peruvians  had 
ilomesticated  the  llama.  Those  who  believe  in  the  diversity  of 
spe(;ies  of  men  may  end"avour  to  maintain  that  tin;  Peruvians  had 
domestic  llamas  i'n)m  the  begiiming.  Archbishop  Whately,  however, 
Avould  not  take  this  lino,  lie  would,  I  am  sure,  admit  that  the  first 
settlers  in  Peru  hud  no  llamas,  nor,  indeed,  any  otlicr  domestic 
animal,  excepting,  probably,  the  dog.  Tho  bark-cloth  of  the 
Polyu'jsiaus  is  anotluT  case  in  point.  Another  very  strong  case  is 
the  boomerang  of  tlio  Australians.  Tliis  weapon  is  known  to  no 
other  race  of  men.^  We  cannot  look  on  it  as  a  relic  of  j)rimeval 
eivilisjition,  or  it  would  not  now  bo  confined  to  one  race  only.  The 
Australians  cannot  have  leai.'t  it  from  any  civilised  visitors,  for  the 
same  reason.  It  is,  therefore,  as  it  seems  to  me,  exactly  tho  case  we 
want,  and  a  clear  proof  of  a  step  in  advance — a  small  one,  in- 
deed, but  still  a  step  made  by  a  people  whom  Archbishop  "Whately 
Avould  certainly  admit  to  be  true  savages.  The  Cherokecs  aflbrd  a 
remarkable  instance  of  progress,  and  indeed — alone  among  the  North 
A'nerican  hunting  races — have  really  become  agriculturists.  As 
long  ago  as  1825,  with  a  pojnilation  of  11,000,  they  possessed 
2,!)23  i)Ioughs,  7,G83  horses,  22,500  bhick  cattle,  4G,700  pigs,  and 
2,500  sheep.  They  had  49  mills,  09  blacksmiths'  shops,  702  looms, 
and  2,480  spinning-wheels.  They  kept  slaves,  having  captured 
several  hundred  negroes  in  Carolina.  Nay,  one  of  them,  a  man  of 
the  name  of  Sequoyah,  invented  a  system  of  letters,  which,  as  far  as 
the  Cherokee  language  is  concerned,  is  better  than  ours.  Cherokee 
contains  twelve  consonants  and  five  vowels,  with  a  nasal  sound  'ung.' 
INIultiplying,  then,  the  twelve  consonants  by  the  six  vowels,  and  adding 
the  vowels  which  occur  singly,  but  omitting  any  sign  for  '  mung,'  as 
that  sound  does  not  occur  in  Cherokee,  he  acquired  seventy-seven  cha- 
racters, to  which  he  added  eight — represeniingthe  soimds  s,  ka,  hna, 
nah,  ta,  te,  ti,  tla — making,  altogether,  eighty-five  characters.  This 
alphabet,  as  already  mentioned,  is  sui)erior  to  ours.  The  characters 
are  indeed  more  numerous,  but,  when  once  learnt,  the  pupil  can  read 


»  Tanner'6  Niirrutivo,  p.  ISO. 


^  Witli  ono  doubtful  exception. 


r. 

-sink,  nn 
irst  intro- 
Moreover, 
no  of  tlio 
ito  it)  an 
enco  of  a 
^iaris  litid 
I'ursity   df 

liowovcr, 

t  the  first 

Uoiiiestic 

li  of    tlio 

ig  case  is 

A'n  to  no 

primeval 

ly.     Tlie 

S  for  the 

B  case  we 

one,   in- 

AVhately 

a  (lord  a 

he  Nortlt 

sts.     Ah 

)osse8se»l 

)igs,  and 

2  looms, 

captured 

man  of 

IS  far  as 

herokee 

id  *nng.' 

laddincr 

lung,'  as 

^on  cha- 

ka,  hna, 

This 

firactera 

an  read 

ion. 


INDIOKNOUH    ORIGIN    OF    MEXICAN    CIVILISATION. 


y:jn 


at  onco.     It  is  said  that  a  hoy  can  h'arn  to  read  Chcntkco,  when 
thus  expressed,  in  a  few  weeks;   while,  if  or(hnary  h'tfera  were  used, 
two  years  wouKl  he  reipiired.     OI)viously,  liowever,  this  alphahet  is 
not  ajiplieahle  to  other  languages.     Again,  the  rude  suhstitutes  for 
writing  found  among  various  tril)cs — thtf  wampum  of  the  North 
American    Indians,    the    picture-writing    and    (pii])pti    of    Central 
America — nuist  bo   regardrd  as  of  native  origin.     In  the  case  of 
tlio  system  of  letters  invented  hy  Mohannnod  Doalu,  a  neg.-o  of  tho 
Vei    country,   in  AVest  Africa,  tho    idea  vaa   no    douht  1)orrowed 
from  tho  nii.Srti')naries,  although  it  was  worked  out  independently. 
In  other  cases,  however,   I  think  this  cannot  be.     Take  the  casu 
of  the  Mexicans.      Even    if  we  suppose  that   they  are  descended 
i'rom    a   primitively    civilised  race,   and  had   gradually   and   com- 
j)letely  h^st   both   the  use  and  tradition  of  letters — to  my  mind,  a 
most  improbable  hypothesis — still  we  must  l()i)k  on  their  system  of 
picture-writing  as  being  of  American  origin.     Even  if  a  system  of 
writing  by  letters  could  ever  be  altogether  lost,  which  I  doubt,  it 
certainly  coidd  not  bo  abandoned  for  that  of  picture-writing,  which 
is  inferior  in  every  point  of  view.     If  the  IMexicans  had  owed  their 
civilisation,  not  to  their  own  gradual  improvement,  but  to  the  in- 
fluence of  some  European  visitors,  driven  by  stress  of  weather  or  the 
pursuit  of  ^dventuro  ou  to  their  coasts,  wo  should  have  found  in 
their  system  of  writing,  and  in  other  respects,  unmistakalde  proofs 
of  such  an  influence.     Although,  therefore,   we  have  no  historical 
proof  that  the  civilisation  of  America  Avas  indigenous,  we  have  in 
its  very  character  evidence,  perhaps  more  satisfactory,  than  any  iiis- 
torical  statements  would  be.     The  same  argument  may  bo  dei-ived 
from  tho  names  used  for  numbers  by  savages.     I  feel  great  difPi- 
culty  in  supposing  that  any  race  which  had  learned  to  count  up  to 
ten  would  ever  imleam  a  piece  of  knowledge  so  easy  and  yet  so  useful. 
Yet,  as  has  been  already  pointed  out,  few,  perhaps  none,  of  those 
whom  Archbishop  Whately  would  call  savages  can  count  so  :^ar. 

In  n.  my  cases,  where  the  system  of  numeration  i^  at  present  some- 
what more  advanced,  it  bears  on  it  the  stamp  of  native  and  recent 
origin.  A  mong  civilised  nations,  the  derivations  of  the  numerals 
have  long  since  been  obscured  by  the  gradual  modification  wliich 
time  effects  in  all  words — especially  those  in  frequenting,  aud before 
the  invention  of  printing.  And  if  the  numerals  of  savagfes  were 
relics  of  a  former  civilisat'on,  the  -waifs  and  strays  saved  out  of  tho 
general  wreck,  they  woidd  certaiidy  have  suffered  so  much  from  the 


':'! 


'   It 


n 


i^+i 


;;H 


Vi 


334 


PROGRESS   AS    INDICATED    BY    LANGUAGE. 


wear  and  tear  of  constant  use,  that  their  derivations  would  be  obscured 
or  wholly  imdiscoverable,  instead  of  whicli  they  are  otlen  perfectly 
clear  and  obvious,  especially  among  races  whose  arithmetical  attain- 
ments are  lowest.  These  numerals,  then,  are  recent,  because  they 
a^2  uncorrupted ;  and  they  are  indigenous,  because  they  have  an  evi- 
dent meaning  in  the  language  of  the  tribes  by  whom  they  are  used.' 

Again,  as  I  have  already  pointed  out,^  many  savage  languages 
are  entirely  deficient  in  such  words  as  '  colour,'  *  tone,'  *  tree,'  &c., 
having  names  for  each  kind  of  colour,  every  species  of  tree,  but 
:.iot  for  the  general  idea.  I  can  hardly  imagine  a  nation  losing  such 
words,  if  it  had  once  possessed  them. 

Other  similar  evidence  might  be  extracted  from  the  language  of 
savages  ;  and  arguments  of  this  nature  are  entitled  to  more  weight 
than  statements  of  travellers,  as  to  the  objects  found  in  use  among 
savages.  Suppose,  for  instance,  that  an  early  traveller  mentioned 
the  absence  of  some  art  or  knowledge  among  a  race  visited  by  him, 
and  that  later  ones  found  the  natives  in  possession  of  it.  Most  people 
would  hesitate  to  receive  this  as  a  clear  evidence  of  progress,  and 
rather  be  disposed  to  suspect  that  later  travellers,  with  perhaps  better 
opportunities,  had  seen  what  their  predecessors  had  overlooked. 
This  is  no  hj^pothetical  case.  The  early  Spanish  writers  assert  that 
the  inhabitants  of  the  Ladrone  Islands  were  ignorant  of  the  use  of 
fire.  Later  travellers,  on  the  contrary,  find  them  perfectly  well 
acquainted  with  it.  fhey  have,  therefore,  almost  unanimously 
assumed,  not  that  the  natives  had  niad(  a  step  in  advance,  but  that 
the  Spaniards  had  made  a  mistake ;  and  1  have  not  brought  this  case 
forward  in  opposition  to  the  assertions  of  Whately,  because  I  am 
inclined  to  be  of  this  opinion  myself.  I  refer  to  it  here,  however,  as 
showing  how  difficult  it  would  be  to  obtain  satisfactory  evidence  of 
material  progress  among  savages,  even  admitting  that  such  exists. 
The  arguments  derived  firom  language,  however,  are  liable  to  no  such 
suspicions,  but  tell  their  own  tale,  and  leave  us  at  liberty  to  draw 
our  conclusions. 

I  will  now  very  briefly  refer  to  certain  considerations  Avhich  seem 
to  show  that  even  the  most  civilised  races  were  once  in  a  state  of  bar- 
barism. Not  only  throughout  Europe — not  only  in  Italy  and  Greece 
— but  even  in  the  so-called  cradle  of  civilisaticn  itself,  in  Palestine, 
and  Syria,  in  Egypt,  and  in  India,  the  traces  of  a  stone  age  have  been 

■  See  Chapter  VIII.  This  argument  new  words  are  coined  from  time  to  time 
would  be  conclusive  were  it  not  that     in  all  languages.  ^  Ch.  VIII. 


tn^ 


TllACES    OF    BARBARISM   IN    CIVILISED    COUNTRIES.      335 


:g  obscurcJ 

1  perfectly 

leal  attain - 

3ause  tliey 

ave  an  evi- 

arc  used.' 

languages 

tree,'  &c., 

r  tree,  but 

Ohing  such 

m gunge  of 
are  weight 
use  among 
mentioned 
id  by  him, 
[est  people 
igress,  and 
aps  better 
v^erlooked. 
issert  that 
the  use  of 
ctly  well 
mimously 
,  but  that 
t  this  case 
luse  I  am 
)wever,  as 
ddence  of 
ch  exists, 
o  no  such 
^  to  draw 

lich  seem 
te  of  bar- 
id  Greece 
alestine, 
lave  been 


Tie  to  timo 
Vlll. 


cliscovcred.  It  may,  indeed,  be  siiid  that  these  were  only  the  frag- 
ments of  those  stone  knives,  &c.,  which  we  know  were  used  in 
religious  ceremonies  long  alter  metal  was  in  general  use  for  secular 
purposes.  This,  indeed,  resembles  the  attempt  to  account  for  the 
presence  of  elephants'  bones  in  England  by  supposing  that  they 
were  the  remains  of  elephants  which  might  have  been  brought  over 
by  the  Eomans.  But  why  were  stone  knives  used  by  the  Egyptian 
and  Jewish  priests?  evidently  because  they  had  been  at  one  time  in 
general  use,  and  there  was  a  feeling  of  respect  which  made  them 
reluctant  to  use  the  new  substance  in  religious  ceremonies. 

There  are,  moreover,  other  considerations;  for  instance,  the  gradual 
improvement  in  the  relation  between  the  sexes,  and  the  development 
of  correct  ideas  on  the  subject  of  relationship,  seem  to  me  strongly 
to  point  to  the  same  conclui^ion. 

In  the  publications  of  the  Nova  Scotian  '  Institute  of  Natural 
Science  '  is  an  interesting  paper,  by  Mr.  Ilaliburton,  on  '  The  Unity 
of  the  Human  liace,  proved  by  the  universality  of  certain  super- 
stitions connected  wdth  sneezing.'  *  Once  establish,'  he  says,  '  that 
a  large  number  of  arbitrary  customs — such  as  could  not  have 
naturally  suggested  themselves  to  all  men  at  all  times — are  uni- 
versally observed,  and  we  arrive  at  the  conclusion  that  they  are 
j)rimitive  customs  which  have  been  inherited  from  a  common  source, 
and,  if  inherited,  that  they  owe  their  origin  to  an  era  anterior  to  the 
dispersion  of  the  human  race.'  To  justify  such  a  conclusion,  the 
custom  must  be  demonstrably  arbitrary.  The  belief  that  two  and 
two  make  four,  the  decimal  system  of  numeration,  ami  similar  co- 
incidences of  course  prove  nothing;  but  I  very  much  doubt  the  ex- 
istence of  any  universal,  or  even  general,  custom  of  a  clearly  arbitrary 
character.  The  fact  is,  that  many  things  appear  to  us  arbitrary  and 
strange  because  we  live  in  a  condition  so  dill'erent  from  that  in  which 
they  originated.  Many  things  seem  natural  to  a  savage  which  to  us 
appear  absurd  and  unaccountable. 

Mr.  Ilaliburton  brings  forward,  as  his  strongest  case,  the  habit  of 
saying  '  God  bless  you  !'  or  some  equivalent  expression,  when  a 
person  sneezes.  lie  shows  that  this  custom,  which,  I  admit,  apjicars 
to  us  at  first  sight  both  odd  and  arbitrary,  is  ancient  and  Avidely  ex- 
tended. It  is  mentioned  by  Homer,  Aristotle,  Apuleius,  Pliny,  and 
the  Jewish  rabbis,  and  has  been  observed  in  Koordistan,  in  Florida, 
in  Otaheite,  and  in  the  Tonga  Islands.  It  is  not  arbitrary,  however, 
and  it  does  not,  therefore,  come  under  his  rule. 

A.  belief  in  invisil)le  beings  is  very  general  nnn^ng  savages;  and 


Hi 


.  i 


m-m 


i    t 


33G 


AREITRAIIY   CUSTOMS. 


while  they  tLink  it  iinncccs?ary  to  account  for  blcsHings,  tliry 
attribute  any  misfortune  to  the  ill-will  of  these  mysterious  bciDgs. 
INIany  savages  regard  disease  as  a  case  of  possession.  In  cases  of 
illness,  they  do  not  suppose  that  the  organs  are  themselves  affected, 
but  that  they  are  being  devoured  by  a  god;  hence  th<jir  medicine- 
men do  not  try  to  cure  the  disease,  but  to  extract  the  demon.  Some 
tribes  have  a  distinct  deity  for  every  ailment.  The  Australians  do 
not  believe  in  natural  death.  AVhen  a  n^iun  dies,  they  take  it 
for  granted  that  he  has  been  destroyed  by  witchcraft,  and  the 
only  doubt  is,  who  is  the  culprit?  ISow,  a  people  in  this  state 
of  mind — and  we  know  that  almost  every  race  of  men  is  passing, 
or  has  passed,  through  this  stage  of  development — seeing  a  man 
sneeze,  would  naturally,  and  almost  inevitably,  suppose  that  he 
was  attacked  and  shaken  by  some  invisible  being;  equally  natural 
is  the  impulse  to  appeal  for  aid  to  some  other  invisible  being  more 
poAverful  than  the  first. 

Mr.  Ilaliburton  admits  that  a  sneeze  is  '  an  omen  of  impending 
evil ;  '  but  it  is  more — it  is  evidence,  which  to  the  savage  mind  would 
seem  conclusive,  that  the  sneezer  was  possessed  by  some  evil-dis- 
posed spirit ;  evidently,  therefore,  this  case,  on  which  Mr.  Ilaliburton 
so  much  relies,  is  by  no  means  an  *  arbitrary  custom,'  and  does  not, 
therefore,  fulfil  the  conditions  which  he  himself  laid  down.  lie  has 
incidentally  brought  forward  some  other  instances,  most  of  which 
labour  under  the  disadvantage  of  proving  too  much.  Thus,  he 
instances  the  existence  of  a  festival  in  honour  of  the  dead,  *  at  or  near 
the  beginning  of  November.'  Such  a  feast  is  very  general ;  and  as 
there  are  many  more  races  holding  such  a  festival  than  there  are 
months  in  the  year,  it  is  evident  that,  in  several  cases,  they  must  bo 
held  together.  But  Mr.  Ilaliburton  goes  on  to  say  :  '  The  Spaniards 
were  very  naturally  surprised  at  finding  that,  while  they  were  cele- 
brating a  solemn  mass  for  All  Souls,  on  November  22,  the 
heathen  Peruvians  were  also  holding  their  annual  commemoration  of 
the  dead.'  This  curious  coincidence  would,  however,  not  only  prove 
the  existence  of  such  a  festival,  as  he  says,  *  before  the  dispersion  ' 
(which  Mr.  Ilaliburton  evidently  looks  on  as  a  definite  event  rather 
than  as  a  gradual  process),  but  also  the  ancestors  of  the  Peruvians 
were  at  that  epoch  sufHciently  advanced  to  form  a  calendar,  and 
that  their  d(!sccndants  were  able  to  keep  it  unchanged  down  to 
the  present  time.  This,  however,  we  know  was  not  the  case.  Again 
Mr.    Haliburton    says :    '  The    belief   in    Scotland    and    equatorial 


UNITY    OF   THE    HUMAN    RACE. 


337 


SHingf,  they 
'ious  beings. 
In  case 3  of 
vcs  affected, 
r  medicine - 
lion.  Somo 
stralians  do 
ley  take  it 
ift,  and  the 
1  this  state 
1  is  pa.ssiiig, 
Aug  a  man 
)se  that  ]iG 
ally  natural 
being  moro 

impending 

mind  would 

ic  evil-dis- 

Ilaliburton 

id  does  not, 

n.     lie  lias 

3t  of  whicii 

Thus,   he 

'  at  or  near 

,1 ;   and  as 

there  are 

ey  must  bo 

i  Spaniards 

were  cele- 

r    22,   the 

noration  of 

only  prove 

lispersion  ' 

I'cnt  rather 

Peruvians 

-■ndar,  and 

i  down  to 

0.     Ajxain 

equatorial 


Africa  is  found  to  be  almost  precisely  identical  respecting  there 
being  ghosts,  even  of  the  living,  who  arc  exceedingly  troublesome 
and  pugnacious,  and  can  be  sometimes  killed  by  a  silver  bullet.' 
Here  we  certainly  have  what  seems  at  first  sight  to  be  an  arlntrary 
belief;  but  if  it  proves  tht^.t  there  was  a  belief  in  ghosts  of  the  living 
Ix'fore  the  dispersion,  it  also  proves  that  silver  bullets  were  then  in 
use.  This  illustration  is,  I  think,  a  very  interesting  one  ;  because 
it  shows  that  similar  ideas  in  distant  countries  owe  their  origin,  not 
'  to  an  era  before  the  dispersion  of  the  human  race,'  but  to  the  fun- 
damental similarity  of  the  human  mind.  While  I  do  not  believe  that 
siuiilar  customs  in  different  nations  are  '  inherited  from  a  common 
source,'  or  are  necessarily  primitive,  I  certainly  do  see  in  them  an 
argument  for  the  unity  of  tho  human  race,  which,  however  (be  it 
remarked),  is  not  necessarily  the  same  thing  as  the  descent  from  a 
single  pair. 

On  the  other,  hand,  I  have  attempted  to  show  that  idea?,  which 
might  at  first  sight  appear  arbitrary  and  unaccountaljle,  arise  naturally 
in  very  distinct  nations  as  they  airive  at  a  similar  stage  of  progress  ; 
and  it  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  be  extremely  cautious  in  using  such 
customs  or  ideas  as  implying  any  special  connection  between  different 
races  of  men. 


PART  II.' 

At  the  Dundee  Meeting  of  the  British  Association,  I  had  the 
honour  of  reading  a  Paper  '  On  the  Origin  of  Civilisation  and  the 
Primitive  Condition  of  Man,'  in  answer  to  certain  opinions  and  argu- 
ments brought  forward  by  the  late  Archbishop  of  Dublin.  The 
views  therein  advocated  met  with  little  opposition  at  the  time.  The 
then  Presidents  of  the  Ethnological  and  Anthropological  Societies 
both  expressed  their  concurrence  in  the  conclusions  to  which  I 
arrived  ;  and  the  Memoir  was  printed  in  extenso  by  the  Association. 
It  has,  however,  subsequently  been  attacked  at  some  length  by  the 
Duke  of  Ai-gyll  ^^  and  as  the  Duke  has  in  some  cases  strangely 

'  The  sulistance  of  this  was  road  ^  Good  Words;  Marpti,  April,  May, 
before  the  British  Association,  during  and  June,  18G8.  Also  siiioo  rojmb- 
thoir  n.eeLing  at  Exeter  iii  18G9.  li'shed  in  a  separate  form. 


-   n 


3;i8 


MENTAL    DIFFEREXCES   IN    DIFFERENT   RACES. 


m 


misunderstood  me,  and  in  others  (I  am  sure  unintentionally)  misrejirc- 
scnted  my  views — as,  moreover,  the  subject  is  one  of  great  interest 
and  importance — I  am  anxious  to  make  some  remarks  in  reply  to 
his  Grace's  criticisms.  The  Duke  has  divided  his  work  into  four 
chapters : — I.  Introduction  ;  II.  The  Origin  of  Man  ;  III.  and  IV. 
His  Primitive  Condition. 

I  did  not  in  my  first  Memoir,  nor  do  I  now  propose  to,  discuss 
the  subjects  dealt  with  in  the  first  half  of  the  Duke's  '  Speculations.' 
I  will  only  observe  that  in  attacking  Pi-of.  Huxley  for  proposing  to 
unite  the  Bimana  and  Quadrumana  in  one  Order,  '  Primates,'  the 
Duke  uses  a  dangerous  argument ;  for  if,  on  account  of  his  great 
mental  superiority  over  the  Quadrumana,  INIan  forms  an  Order  or  even 
Class  by  himself,  it  will  be  impossible  any  longer  to  regard  all  men 
as  belonging  to  one  species  or  even  genus.  The  Duke  is  in  error 
when  he  supposes  that  '  mental  powers  and  instincts  '  afford  tests  of 
easy  application  in  other  parts  of  the  animal  kingdom.  On  the  con- 
trary, genera  with  the  most  di  He  rent  mental  powers  and  instincts 
are  placed,  not  only  in  the  same  Order,  but  even  in  the  same  family. 
Thus  our  most  learned  hymcnoptorologist  (Mr.  Frederick  Smiiii) 
classes  the  Hive-bee,  the  Humble-bee,  and  the  parasitic  Apauius,  in 
the  same  subfamily  of  Apidte.  It  seems  to  me,  therefore,  illogical  to 
separate  man  zoologically  from  the  other  primates  on  the  ground  of 
his  mental  superiority,  and  yet  to  maintain  the  specific  unity  of  the 
human  race,  notwithstanding  the  mental  differences  between  different 
races  of  men. 

I  do  not,  however,  propose  to  discuss  the  origin  of  man,  and  pass 
on  therefore  at  once  to  the  Duke's  "Tirrl  chapter;  and  here  I  congra- 
tulate myself  at  the  outset  that  tlu-  v-  ult  of  my  paper  has  been  to 
satisfy  him  that  '  Whately'sargiUiioni,'  though  strong  at  some  points, 
is  at  others  open  to  assault,  and  that,  as  a  whole,  the  subject  now 
requires  to  be  differently  liandled,  and  regarded  from  a  different 
jioint  of  view.'  *  I  do  not,  therefore,'  he  adds  in  a  subsequent  page,^ 
*  agree  with  the  late  Archbishop  of  Dublin,  that  we  are  entitled  to 
assume  it  as  a  fact  that,  as  regards  the  mechanical  arts,  no  siivage 
race  has  e^^or  raised  itself  And  again:  ^  'The  aid  which  man  had 
from  his  Creator  may  possibly  have  been  nothing  more  than  the  aid 
of  a  body  and  of  a  mind,  so  marvellously  endowed,  that  thought  was 
an  instinct,  and  contrivance  a  necessity.' 


'  Good  Words,  18r3,  p.  150. 


Ibid.  June,  p.  3S<3. 


8  p  292. 


!S. 

)  misreprc- 
at  interest 
n  reply  to 
:  into  four 
I.  and  IV. 

to,  discnssi 
3culations.' 
oposing  to 
nates,'  tlie 
f  his  great 
Jer  or  even 
rd  all  men 
is  in  error 
rd  testa  of 
»n  the  con- 
1  instincts 
me  family, 
ck  Smith) 
LPatluis,  in 
illogical  to 
ground  of 
lity  of  the 
n  different 

and  pass 
I  congra- 
s  been  to 
ne  points, 
jject  now 

different 
L'nt  page,^ 
ntitled  to 
10  siivaize 
man  had 
n  the  aid 
)Ught  was 


9Q9 


THE   WEAPONS    OF    MONKEYS. 


339 


I  feel,  however,  less  satisfaction  on  this  account  than  would  other- 
wise have  been  the  case,  because  it  seems  to  mc  that,  though  the 
Duke  acknowledges  the  Archbishop's  argument  to  be  untenable, 
he  practically  reproduces  it  with  but  a  slight  alteration  and  some- 
what protected  by  obscurity.  What  Whately  called  *  instruction  ' 
the  Duke  terms  'instinct ;'  and  he  considers  that  man  had  instincts 
which  afforded  all  that  was  necessary  as  a  starting  ground.  lie 
admits,  however,  that  monkeys  use  stones  to  break  nuts;  he  might 
have  added  that  they  throw  sticks  at  intruders.  But  he  says, 
'  between  these  rudiments  of  intellectual  perception  and  the  next 
step  (that  of  adapting  and  fashioning  an  instrument  for  a  particular 
purpose)  there  is  a  gulf  in  which  lies  the  whole  immeasurable  dis- 
tance between  man  and  brutes.'  I  cannot  agree  with  the  Duke  in 
this  opinion,  nor  ir.deed  does  he  agree  with  himself,  for  he  adds, 
in  the  very  same  page,  that — 'The  wielding  of  a  stick  is,  in  all 
probability,  an  act  equally  of  primitive  intuitioUj  and  from  this  to 
throwing  of  a  stick,  and  the  une  of  javelins,  is  an  easy  and  natural 
transition.' 

lie  continues  as  follows  : — '  Simple  as  these  acts  are,  they  involve 
both  physical  and  mental  powers  which  are  capable  of  all  the 
developments  which  we  see  in  the  most  advanced  industrial  arts. 
These  acts  involve  the  instinctive  idea  of  the  constancy  of  natural 
causes  and  the  capacity  of  thought,  whicli  gives  men  the  conviction 
that  what  has  happened  under  given  conditions  will,  under  the  same 
conditions,  always  occur  again.'  On  thet^e,  he  says,  '  as  well  as  on 
other  grounds,  I  have  never  attached  much  importance  to  Whately's 
argument.'  These  are  indeed  important  admissions,  and  amount  to 
a  virtual  abandonment  of  Whately's  argument. 

The  Duke  blames  the  Archbishop  of  Dublin  f  -  not  having 
defined  the  terms  '  civilisation  '  and  '  barbarism.'  seems  to   me 

that  Whately  illustrated  his  meaning  better  by  ex  .mples  than  he 
could  have  done  by  any  definition.  The  Duke  does  not  seem  to  have 
felt  any  practical  difficulty  from  the  omission ;  and  it  is  remark- 
able that,  afler  all,  he  himself  omits  to  define  th'  terms,  thus  being 
himself  guilty  of  the  very  omission  for  which  he  blames  Whately.  In 
truth,  it  would  be  impossible  in  a  few  words  to  define  the  complex 
organisation  which  we  call  civilisation,  or  to  state  in  a  few  Avords 
how  a  civilised  differs  from  a  barbarous  people.  Indeed,  to  define 
civilisation  as  it  should  be,  is  surely  as  yet  impossible,  since 
we  are  far  indeed  from  having  solved  the  probi'  .;^   how   we  may 


'  a 


\\l 


310 


•rrvr-p)   NATURE   OF   EARBAEISM. 


1  '■ 
U  •' 


best  avail   ourselves  of  our  opportunities,  and  enjoy  the  beautiful 
■\vorkl  in  ^vliieli  we  live. 

As  regards  barbarism,  the  Duke  observes,  *  All  T  desire  to  point 
out  here  is,  that  there  is  no  necessary  connection  between  a  state  of 
more  childhood  in  respect  t'>  knowledge  and  a  state  of  utter  bar- 
barism, v.'ords  which,  it' they  have  any  definite  meaning  at  all,  imply 
the  lowest  moral  as  well  as  the  'owest  intellectual  condition.'  To 
every  proposition  in  this  remarkable  sentence  I  entirely  demur. 
There  is,  I  think,  a  very  intimatr  connection  between  knoAvledge  and 
civilisation.  Knowledge  and  barbarism  cannot  coexist — knowledge 
and  civilisation  are  inseparable. 

Again,  the  words  '  utter  barbarism  '  have  certainly  a  very  de- 
finite signification,  but  as  certainly,  1  think,  not  that  which  the  Duke 
attributes  to  them.  The  lowest  moral  and  t]>e  lowest  intellectual 
condition  are  not  only,  in  my  opinion,  not  inseparable,  they  are  not 
even  compatible.  Morality  in:plics  responsibility,  and  consequently 
intelligenro.  The  lower  animals  are  neither  moral  nor  immoral.  The 
lower  races  of  men  may  be,  and  are,  vicious;  but  allowances  must 
be  made  for  them.  On  the  contrary  {corruptio  optimi,  pessima  est), 
the  higher  the  meiJual  power,  the  more  splendid  the  intellectual  en- 
dowment, the  deeper  is  the  moral  degradation  of  him  who  wastes  the 
one  and  abuses  the  other. 

On  the  whole,  the  fair  inferencu  seems  to  be  that  savages  are  more 
innocent,  and  yot  more  criminal,  than  civilised  races;  they  are  l)y 
no  means  in  the  lowest  possible  moral  condition,  no"  are  they  capa- 
ble of  the  higher  virtues. 

In  the  first  part  of  this  paper  I  laid  much  stress  on  the  fact  that  even 
in  tlie  most  civilised  nations  we  find  traces  of  early  barbarism.  The 
Duke  maintains,  on  tho  contrary,  that  these  traces  aflJbrd  no  proof,  or 
even  presumption,  that  barbarism  was  the  primeval  condition  of 
man.  lie  urges  that  all  such  customs  n^.ay  have  been  not  primeval, 
but  medieval ;  and  he  continues :  '  Yet  this  assumption  runs 
thvouf^iv  al)  8ir  J.  Lubbock's  jirgun^.ents.  Wherever  a  brutal  or 
Ravjigc  custom  prevails,  it  is  v^enrd 'd  as  a  sample  of  the  original 
coiidinon  of  man  kind.  And  this  in  tV.e  teeth  of  facts  which  prove 
that  many  cf  such  customs,  not  only  may  have  been,  but  must  have 
been,  the  .     .lit  of  corruption.' 

Fortunat  y,  it  iio  unnecessary  for  me  to  defend  myself  against  this 
criticism,  be  use  in  the  vcy  i;jxt  sentence  the  Duke  directly  con- 
iradicts  himself,  and  shows  that  I  have  not  done  that  of  which  he 


he  beautiful 

lire  to  point 
en  a  state  of 
>f  utter  bur- 
nt all,  imply 
iition.'  To 
rely  demur, 
owledge  ami 
—knowledge 

a  very  de- 
cli  the  Duke 

intellectual 
hey  are  not 
!onsequently 
imoral.  The 
vances  must 
oessima  est), 
ellectual  eu- 
.0  wastes  the 

^es  are  more 

they  are  by 

they  capa- 

et  that  even 
rism.  Tlie 
no  proof,  or 
ondition  of 
•t  primeval, 
ption  runs 
brutal  or 

le  original 
hich  prove 

must  have 

igainst  this 
rectly  con- 
f  "wliieh  he 


SEQUENCE    OF   CUSTOMS. 


311 


accuses  mo.  He  continues  his  argument  thus  : — 'Taki'  cannil)alisni 
as  one  of  these.  Sir  J.  Lubbock  seems  to  admit  that  this  loathsoine 
practice  was  not  primeval.'  Thus,  by  way  of  proof  that  I  regard  all 
brutal  customs  as  primeval,  he  states,  and  correctly  state?!,  that  I  do 
not  regard  cannibalism  as  primeval.  It  would  be  difficult,  I  think, 
to  find  a  more  curious  case  of  self-contradiction. 

The  Duke  refers  particularly  to  the  practice  of  Bride-catching, 
which  he  states  *  cannot  possibly  have  been  primeval.'  He  omits, 
however,  to  explain  why  not ;  and  of  course,  assuming  the  word 
'  primeval '  to  cover  a  period  of  some  length,  I  am  of  opinion, 
in  opposition  to  his  Grace,  tliat  capture  was  the  early  form  of 
marriage  in  our  sense  of  the  term.  As  the  Duke  correctly  ob- 
serves, I  laid  some  stress  on  this  custom,  and  am  sorry  that  his 
Grace  here  meets  me  Avith  a  mere  contradiction,  instead  of  an  argu- 
ment. It  may  perhaps,  however,  be  as  well  to  state  emphatically 
that  all  brutal  customs  are  not,  in  my  opinion,  primeval,  tluman 
SJicrifices,  for  instance,  were,  I  think,  certaiidy  not  so. 

My  argument,  however,  was  that  there  is  a  definite  sequence  of 
habits  and  ideas;  that  certain  customs  (some  brutal,  others  not  so), 
which  we  find  lingering  on  in  civilised  communities;  are  a  page  of 
past  history,  and  tell  a  tale  of  former  barbarism,  rather  on  account 
of  their  simplicity  than  of  their  brutality,  though  many  of  them  are 
brutal  enough.  Again,  no  one  would  gO  back  from  letter-writing 
to  the  use  of  the  quippu  or  hieroglyphics  ;  no  one  would  abandon 
the  fire-drill  and  obtain  fire  by  hand-friction. 

Believing,  as  he  does,  that  the  primitive  condition  of  man  was  one 
of  civilisation,  the  Duke  accounts  for  the  existence  of  savages  by 
the  remark  that  they  are  '  i.  ?re  outcasts  of  the  human  race,'  descen- 
dants of  weak  tribes  which  were  '  driven  to  the  woods  and  rocks.' 
But  until  the  historical  period  these  '  mere  outcasts '  occupied  almost 
the  whole  of  North  and  South  America,  all  Northern  Eiuope,  the 
greater  part  of  Afiica,  the  great  continent  of  Australia,  a  large  part 
of  Asia,  and  ths  beautiful  islands  of  the  Pacific.  Moreover,  until 
modified  by  man  the  great  continents  were  either  in  the  condition  of 
open  plains,  such  a.^  heaths,  downs,  praiiies,  and  tundras,  or  they 
were  mere  '  woods  and  rocks.'  Now  everything  tends  to  show  that 
mere  woods  and  rocks  exercised  on  the  whole  a  favourable  influence. 
Inhabitants  of  great  plains  rarely  rose  beyond  the  pastoral  stage.  In 
America  the  most  advanced  civilisjition  was  attained,  not  by  the 
Qccupants  of  Uie  fertile  valleys,  not  along  the  banks  of  tluj  Miss  s- 


312 


THE    DIFFUSION    OF    MANKIND. 


In  i  V 


1  .'    u'i 


I'    ij 


it 


*(    . 


.«r'- 


sippi  or  tlie  Amazon,  V)Ut  {imorify  the  roclcs  and  vootL^of  oMcxico  and 
Peru.  Scotland  itself  is  a  brilliant  proof  that  woods  and  rocko  arc 
compatible  with  u  high  state  of '  ivilisation. 

iSly  idea  of  the  manner  in  v.liich,  and  tlic  causes  owing  to  which, 
man  nprcad  over  the  earth,  is  very  difTcrent  from  that  of  tlie  Did<o. 
lie  evidently  supposes  that  now  countries  have  been  occu[)ied  by 
weaker  races,  driven  there  by  mnre  powerful  tribes.  This  I  believe 
to  be  an  entirely  eiToneous  notion.  Take  for  instance  our  own 
island.  Wo  are  sometimes  told  that  the  Celts  wei-e  driven  by  the 
Saxons  into  Wales  and  Cornwall.  On  the  contrary,  however,  we 
know  that  Wales  and  Cornwall  were  both  occupied  long  before  the 
Saxons  landed  on  our  shf)rcs.  Even  as  regards  the  rest  of  the 
country,  it  Avould  not  be  correct  to  say  that  the  Celts  were  driven 
away  ;  they  were  either  destrc^ycd  or  absorbed. 

The  gradual  extension  of  the  human  race  has  not  in  my  opinion 
boon  eflected  by  force  acting  on  any  given  race  from  without,  but  by 
internal  necessity,  and  the  pressure  of  population;  by  peaceful,  not 
by  hostile  force ;  by  prosperity,  not  by  misfortune.  I  believe  that 
of  old,  as  now,  founders  of  noAV  colonies  were  men  of  energy  and 
enterprise ;  animated  by  hope  and  courage,  not  by  fear  and  despaii- ; 
tliat  they  were,  in  short,  anyi]ung  but  mere  outcasts  of  the  human 
race. 

The  Duke  relies  a  gootT  deal  on  the  case  of  America.  •  Is  it  not 
true,'  he  asks,  '  that  the  lowest  and  rudest  tribes  in  the  popidation  of 
the  globe  have  been  found  at  the  furthest  extremities  of  its  great 
continents,  and  in  the  distant  islands  which  would  be  the  last  refuge 
of  ti'B  victims  of  violence  and  misfortune  ?  "  Tlie  New  World"  is 
the  continent  which  presents  the  most  uninterrupted  stretch  of  habi- 
table land  li'om  the  highest  northern  to  the  lowest  southern  latitude!. 
On  the  extreme  ncrth  we  have  the  Esquimaux,  or  Inuit  race,  main- 
taining human  life  under  conditions  of  extremcst  hardship,  even 
amid  the  perjietual  ice  of  the  Polar  Seas.  And  what  a  life  it  is  ! 
Watching  at  the  blow-hole  of  a  seal  for  many  hours,  in  a  tempera- 
ture of  75°  below  frcvizing  point,  is  the  constant  work  of  the  Inuit 
hunter.  And  when  at  last  his  prey  h  struck,  it  is  his  luxury  to  feast 
upon  the  raw  blood  and  blubber.  To  civilised  man  it  is  hardly 
possible  to  conceive  a  life  so  wretched,  and  in  many  respects  so 
brutal  as  the  life  led  by  this  race  during  the  long  lasting  night  of 
tlic  arct^'c  wintf3r.' 

To  this  question,  I  confidently  re])ly.  No,  it  is  not  true  ;  it  is  not 
ti-ue  as  a  general  proposition  that  the  lowest  races  are  found  fiirthcct 


Mexico  and 

1(1  rock.i  arc 

ig  to  wnich, 
f  the  Duke. 
:)ccuj)ied  by 
Ills  I  believe 
;e  our  own 
iven  by  the 
icwever,  avc 
I  before  tlie 
rest  of  tlie 
were  driven 

my  opinion 
lout,  but  by 
eaceliil,  not 
jelieve  tliat 
cnerp:y  and 
nd  despair; 
the  human 

*  Is  it  not 
)pulation  of 
of  its  great 
last  refuge 
World"  is 
eh  of  hal)i- 
n  latitiuu;. 
ace,  main- 
ship,  even 
I  life  it  is  ! 
I  tempera- 

the  Inuit 
uy  to  feast 

is  hardly 
espects  so 
r  night  of 

it  is  not 
d  furthest 


)  ' 


THE  INPLUEXCE  OP  EXTERNAL  CONDITIONS. 


343 


from  the  centres  of  eont'nenls  ;  it  is  not  true  in  the  particidar  caso 
of  America.  The  natives  of  Brazil,  possessing  a  country  of  almost 
luu'ivallcd  fertility,  surroimded  by  the  most  luxuriant  vegetation, 
watered  by  magnificent  rivers,  and  abounding  in  animal  life,  were 
yet  unquestionably  lower  than  the  Esquimaux,*  whom  the  Duke 
pities  .and  despises  so  much.'^  More,  indeed,  I  think  than  the  case 
requires.  Our  own  sportsmen  willingly  undergo  great  hardshij)s  in 
pursuit  of  game;  and  hunting  in  reality  possesses  u  keen  zest  which 
it  can  never  attain  when  it  is  a  mere  sport. 

'  When  we  rise,'  says  INIr.  Hill,''  '  twice  or  thrice  a  day  from  a  full 
meal,  we  cannot  be  in  a  right  frame  either  of  body  or  mind  for  the 
proper  enjoyments  of  the  chase.  Our  sluggish  spirits  then  want 
the  true  incentive  to  action,  which  slioidd  be  hunger,  with  the  hope 
before  us  of  fdling  a  craving  stomach.  I  coidd  remember  once 
before  being  for  a  long  time  dependent  upon  the  gun  for  food,  and 
feeling  a  touch  of  the  charm  of  a  savage  life  (for  every  condition 
of  humanity  has  its  good  as  well  as  its  evil),  but  never  till  now  did 
I  fully  comprehend  the  attachment  of  the  sensitive,  not  drowsy 
Indian.' 

Esquimaux  life,  indeed,  as  painted  by  our  Arctic  voyagers,  is  by 
no  means  so  miserable  as  the  Duke  supposes.  Capt.  Parry,  for 
instance,  gives  the  following  picture  of  an  Esquimaux  hut.  '  In  the 
few  opportunities  we  had  in  putting  their  hosj)itality  to  the  test  we 
hud  every  reason  to  be  pleased  with  them.  Both  as  to  f:)od  and 
accommodation,  the  best  they  had  were  always  at  .ur  service;  and 
their  attention  both  in  kind  and  degree,  was  everything  that  hospi- 
tality and  even  good  breeding  could  dictate.  The  kindly  offices  of 
drying  and  mending  our  clothes,  cooking  our  provisions  and  thawing 
snow  for  our  drink,  were  performed  by  the  women  with  an  obliging 
cheerfulness  which  we  shall  not  easily  forget,  and  which  demanded 
its  due  share  of  our  admiration  and  esteem.  While  thus  their  guest 
I  have  passed  an  evening  not  only  with  comfort,  but  with  extreme 
gratification ;  for  wath  the  women  working  and  singing,  their 
husbands  quietly  mending  their  lines,  the  childi-en  playing  before  the 
door,  and  the  pot  boiling  over  the  blaze  of  a  cheerfid  lamp,  one  might 

'  See  Martins,  p.  77.    Di".  Tiao  ranks  life    is  possible  on  the  borders   of  a 

the  Esquimaux  above  the  Red  Indians,  frozen   sea,'  he  forgot  for  the  moment 

Trans.  Ethn.  Sue.  1866,  the   inhabitants   of    Lapland   and   of 

2  When     the     Duke     states     tliat  Siberia, 

'neither  an  agriculLural  nor  pastoral  '  Travels  in  Siberia,  vol.  ii.  p.  288. 


341 


THE   ESQUIMAUX. 


well  forget  for  tlio  time  tli.'it  an  Ksciuimaux  hut  was  tlie  scene  of  tliis 
(lomestic  comfort  and  tran((iiiHity  ;  and  I  can  safely  aflirm  witli  Cart- 
wri|j;lit  that,  while  thus  lodged  beneath  their  rool',  I  know  no  peo[)lo 
whom  I  would  more  confidently  trust,  as  respects  either  my  jHM'.son 
or  my  property,  than  the  ]']s(piimaux.'  Dr.  Kae,*  who  had  ample 
means  of  judging,  tells  us  that  the  Kastern  Esijuimaux  *  are  soljer, 

steady,  and   faithful Provident  of  their  own  property  and 

careful  of  that  of  others  when  imdor  their  charge Socially 

they  are  a  lively,  cheerful,  and  chatty  people,  fond  of  associating  with 
each  other  and  with   strangers,  with  whom  they  soon  become  on 

friendly  terms,  if  kindly  treated In  their  domestic  relations 

they  arc  exemplary.     The  man  is  an  obedient  son,  a  good  husband, 

and  u  kind  iiither Iho  children  when  yoimg  arc  docile.  .  . 

The  girls  have  their  dolls,  in  making  dresses  and  shoes  for  which 
they  amuse  and  employ  themselves.      The   boys   have  miniature 

bows,  arrows,  and  spears When  grown  up  they  arc  dutiful 

to  their  parents Oi[)han  children  are  readily  adopted  and 

well  cared  for  until  they  arc  able  to  provide  for  themselves.'  lie 
concludes  by  saying,  *  the  more  I  saw  of  the  Esuuinuiux  the  higher 
was  the  opinion  I  formed  of  them.' 

Again,  Hooper^  thus  describes  a  visit  to  an  Asiatic  Esquimaux 
belonging  to  the  Tuski  race  :  '  Upon  reaching  Mooldooyah's  habita- 
tion, we  found  Captain  IMoorc  installed  at  his  ease,  with  every  pro- 
vision made  for  comfort  and  convenience.  Water  and  venison  were 
suspended  over  the  lamps  in  preparation  for  dinner ;  skins  nicely 
arranged  for  couches,  and  the  hangings  raised  to  admit  the  cool  air  ; 
our  baggage  was  bestowed  around  us  with  care  and  in  quiet,  and  Ave 
were  free  to  take  our  own  wa\  o''  enjoying  such  unobtrusive  hospi- 
tality without  a  crowd  of  eager  gazers  watching  us  like  lions  at 
feed  ;  nor  were  we  troubled  by  importunate  begging  such  as  de- 
tracted from  the  dignity  of  IMctra's  station,  which  was  undoubtedly 
high  in  the  tribe.' 

I  know  no  sufficient  reason  for  supposing  that  the  Esquimaux  were 
over  more  advanced  than  they  are  now.  The  Duke  indeed  considers 
that  before  they  were  *  driven  by  wars  and  migrations '  (a  somewhat 
curious  expression)  they  '  may  have  been  nomads  living  on  their 
ilocks  and  herds ; '  and  he  states  broadly  that  '  the  rigours  of  the 
region  they  now  inhabit  have  reduced  this  people  to  the  condition  in 


>  Trans.  Etli.  Soc.  1SG6,  p.  138. 


The  Teuts  of  the  Tuski,  p.  102. 


1^! 


I' 


ORIGINAL    AXI)    UMVEUSAL    DAUHAUISM. 


ni:) 


3ono  of  tliis 
with  Cart- 
er no  people 
my  person 
liacl  anijilc 
'  are  sober, 
roperty  ami 
,  .  Socially 
liating  with 
become  on 
:ic  relations 
id  husband, 
J  docile.  .  . 
}  for  which 
3  miniature 
arc  dutiful 
dopted  and 
;clves.'     lie 
:  the  higher 

Esquimaux 
di's  habita- 

cvery  pro- 
en  i  son  were 
kins  nicely 
lie  cool  air ; 
liet,  and  we 
isive  hospi- 

e  lions  at 
uch  as  de- 
ndoubtedly 

maux  were 
considers 
somewhat 
;  on  their 
nirs  of  the 
ondition  in 

ki,  p.  102. 


1 


which  wo  now  roo  them  ;'  a  conclusion  for  whicli  I  know  no  reason, 
j)articularly  as  the  'riiuieand  other  Indians  living  to  the  south  ol"  the 
Esquimaux  are  ruder  and  more  barbarous. 

It  is  my  belief  that  the  great  continents  were  already  occupied  by  a 
widespread,  though  sparse  poj)ulation,  when  nwiu  was  no  more  ad - 
vanced  than  the  lowest  savages  of  to-day  ;  and  although  1  am  fir  from 
believing  that  the  various  degrees  of  civili.s;ition  which  now  occur 
can  be  altogether  accounted  for  by  the  external  circumstances  as 
they  at  present  exist,  still  these  circumstances  seem  to  me  to  throw 
much  light  on  the  very  dill'erent  amount  of  prtgress  whicli  ha  been 
utraincd  by  different  races. 

In  referring  to  the  backwardness  of  the  aboriginal  Atistralians,  I 
liad  observed  that  New  Holland  contained  'neither  cereals  nor  any 
animals  which  could  be  domesticated  with  advantage,'  upon  which 
tho  Duke  remarks  that  '  Sir  Jolm  Lubbock  urgon  in  reply  to 
Whately  that  the  low  condition  of  Australian  savages  affords  no 
proof  whatever  that  they  could  not  raise  themselves,  l)ecauso  the 
materials  of  improvement  are  wanting  in  that  country  whicli  affords 
no  cereals,  nor  animals  capable  of  useful  domestication.  But  Sir  J. 
Lubbock  does  not  perceive  that  the  same  argument  which  shows 
how  improvement  could  not  possibly  be  attained,  shows  also  how 
degradation  could  not  possibly  be  avoided.  If  with  the  few  re- 
sources of  the  country  it  was  impossible  for  savages  to  rise,  it 
follows  that  with  those  same  resources  it  would  be  impossible  for 
a  half-civilised  race  not  to  fall.  And  as  in  tliis  case  again,  unless 
we  are  to  suppose  a  separate  Adam  and  Eve  for  Van  Dieinen's  Land, 
its  natives  must  originally  have  come  from  countries  where  both  corn 
and  cattle  were  to  be  had,  it  follows  that  the  low  condition  of  these 
natives  is  much  more  likely  to  have  been  the  result  of  degradation 
than  of  primeval  barbarism.' 

But  my  argument  was  that  a  half-civilised  race  would  have 
brought  other  resources  with  them.  The  dog  was,  I  think,  certainly 
introduced  into  that  country  by  man,  who  would  have  brought  with 
him  other  animals  also  if  he  had  possessed  any.  The  same  argument 
applies  to  plants ;  the  Polynesians  carried  the  sweet  potato  and  tho 
yam,  as  well  as  the  dog,  with  them  from  island  to  island;  and 
even  if  the  first  settlers  in  Australia  happened  to  have  been  with- 
out them,  and  without  the  means  of  acquiring  them,  they  would 
certainly  have  found   some  native  plants  which  would  have  been 

16 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-S) 


// 


:/. 


\o 


I/. 


1.0 


I.I 


11.25 


lai2.8    |2.5 

HP    111112.0 


Photographic 

Sciences 
Corporation 


33  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  14S80 

(716)  872-4503 


iV 


^^ 


o 


''h 


V 


<«*>. 


;\ 


# 


'^^ 


^ 


'<^ 


3iG 


SUPPOSED    INEVITARILITY    OF    DEGRADATION. 


:  1 


'I    t 


wortli  tlie  trouble  of  cultivation,  IT  tlioy  had  uttaiucd  to  the  agricul- 
tural stage. 

This  argument  ap])lics  with  even  more  force  to  pottery  ;  if  the 
first  settlers  in  Australia  were  acquainted  with  this  art,  I  can  sec  no 
reason  wliy  they  sliould  suddenly  and  cornj)letcly  have  lost  it. 

The  Duke,  indeed,  appears  to  maintain  that  though  the  natives  of 
Van  Diemen's  Land  (whom  he  evidently  regards  as  belonging  to  the 
same  race  as  the  Australians  and  Polynesians,  from  both  of  which 
they  are  entirely  distinct)  *  must  originally  have  come  from  countries 
where  both  corn  and  cattle  were  to  be  had,'  still  '  degradation  could 
not  possibly  be  avoided.'  This  seems  to  be  the  natural  inference 
from  the  Duke's  language,  and  suggests  a  very  gloomy  feature  for 
our  Australian  fellow-countrymen.  The  position  is,  however,  so 
manifestly  untenable,  when  once  put  into  plain  language,  that  I 
think  it  unnecessary  to  dwell  longer  on  this  part  of  the  subject. 
Even  the  Duke  himself  will  hardly  maintain  that  our  colonists  must 
fall  back  because  the  natives  did  not  improve.  Yet  he  extends  and 
generalises  this  argument  in  a  sul -sequent  paragraph,  saying,  *  there 
is  hardly  a  single  fact  quoted  by  felr  J.  Lubbock  in  favour  of  his  own 
theory,  which  when  viewed  in  connection  with  the  same  indisputable 
principles,  does  not  tell  against  that  theory  rather  than  in  its  favour.' 
So  far  from  being  *  indisputable,'  the  principle  that  when  savages 
remained  savages,  civilised  settlers  must  descend  to  the  same  level, 
appears  to  me  entirely  erroneous.  On  reading  the  above  passage, 
however,  I  passed  on  with  much  interest  to  see  which  of  my  facts  1 
had  so  strangely  misread. 

The  great  majority  of  f-cts  connected  with  savage  life  have  no 
perceptible  bearing  on  the  question,  and  I  must  therefore  have  been 
not  only  very  stupid,  but  also  singularly  unfortunate,  if  of  all  those 
quoted  by  me  in  support  of  my  argument  there  was  '  hardly  a  single 
one,'  which  read  aright  was  not  merely  irrelevant,  but  actually  told 
against  me.  In  support  of  his  statement  the  Duke  gives  three  illus- 
trations, but  it  is  remarkable  that  not  one  of  these  three  cases  was 
referred  to  by  me  in  the  present  discussion,  or  in  favoiu*  of  my 
theory.  If  all  the  facts  on  which  I  relied  told  against  me,  it  is 
curious  that  the  Duke  should  not  give  an  instance.  The  three  illus- 
trations which  he  quotes  from  my  '  Prehistoric  Times '  seem  to  mo 
irrelevant,  but  as  the  Duke  thinks  otherwise,  and  many  may  agree 
with  him,  it  will  be  worth  while  to  see  how  he  uses  them,  and 


N. 


SURVIVAL   OF   CUSTOMS. 


317 


lie  agricul- 


;ry ;  if  tlie 

can  see  no 
it  it. 

3  natives  of 
ging  to  the 
1  of  "vvhich 
n  countries 
ation  could 
il  inference 

feature  for 
lowever,  so 
age,  that  I 
the  subject, 
lonists  must 
extends  and 
^ing,  *  there 
r  of  his  own 
indisputable 

its  favour.' 
len  savages 

same  level, 

>ve  passage, 

my  facts  i 


e  have  no 
have  been 
Df  all  those 
ly  a  single 
tually  told 
hree  illus- 
e  cases  was 
oiu*  of  my 
t  me,  it  is 
three  illus- 
seem  to  mo 
may  agree 
them,  iind 


to  enquire  whether  they  give  any  real  support  to  his  argument.     As 
already  mentioned,  they  are  three  in  number. 

'  Sir  J.  Lubbock,'  he  says,  '  reminds  us  that  in  a  ca"e  on  the  north- 
west coast  (of  Australia),  tolerable  figures  of  sharks,  porpoises,  turtles, 
lizards,  canoes,  ar-d  some  quadrupeds,  &c.  were  found,  and  yet  that  the 
present  natives  of  the  country  where  they  were  found  were  utterly 
incapable  of  realising  the  most  artistic  vivid  representations,  and 
ascribe  the  drawings  in  the  cave  to  diabolical  agency.'  This  does 
not  prove  much,  because  the  Australian  tribes  differ  much  in  their 
artistic  condition  ;  some  of  them  still  make  rude  drawings  like  those 
above  described. 

Secondly,  he  says,  '  Sir  J.  Lubbock  quotes  the  testimony  of  Cook, 
in  respect  to  the  Tasmanians,  that  thoy  had  no  canoes.  Yet  their 
ancestors  could  not  have  reached  the  island  by  walking  on  the  sea.' 
This  argument  would  equally  prove  that  the  kangaroo  and  the 
Echidna  must  have  had  civilised  ancestors;  they  inhabit  both 
Australia  and  Tasmania,  and  it  would  have  been  impossible  for 
their  ancestors  to  have  passed  from  the  one  to  the  other,  '  by  walking 
on  the  sea.'  The  Duke,  though  admitting  the  antiquity  of  man, 
does  not  I  think  appr  ;e!ate  the  geological  changes  which  have  taken 
place  during  the  human  period. 

The  only  other  case  which  he  quotes  is  that  of  the  highland 
Esquimaux  who  had  no  weapons  nor  any  idea  of  war.  The  Duke's 
comment  is  as  follows.  *  No  wonder,  poor  people  !  They  had  been 
driven  into  regions  where  no  stronger  race  coidd  desire  to  follow 
them.  But  that  the  fathers  had  once  known  what  war  and  violence 
meant,  there  is  no  more  conclusive  proof  than  the  dwelling  place  of 
their  children.'  It  is  perhaps  natural  that  the  head  of  a  great  High- 
land Clan  should  regard  with  pity  a  people  who  having  '  once  known 
what  war  and  violence  meant,'  have  no  longer  any  neighbours  to 
pillage  or  to  fight,  but  a  lowlander  can  hardly  be  expected  seriously 
to  regard  such  a  change  as  one  calculated  to  excite  pity,  or  as  any 
evidence  of  degradation. 

In  my  first  paper  I  deduced  an  argument  from  the  condition  of  reli- 
gion among  the  different  races  of  man,  a  part  of  the  subject  which  has 
since  been  admirably  dealt  with  by  ^Ir.  Tylor  in  a  lecture  at  the  Royal 
Institution.  The  use  of  flint  for  sacrificial  purposes  long  after  the 
introduction  of  metal,  seemed  to  me  a  good  ca'^e  of  what  ^Ir.  Tylor  has 
aptly  called  '  Survival.'  So  also  is  the  method  of  obtiiining  fire. 
The  brahman  will  not  use  ordinary  fire  for  sacred  purposes,  he  dt/cs 


'     M 


I 


a-43 


TUE    IIEUGION    OF    SAVAGES. 


not  even  obUiin  a  frcsli  spark  from  flint  and  steel,  but  reverts  to,  or 
rather  continues  the  old  way  of  obtaining  it  by  friction  Avilli  a 
wooden  drill,  one  brahman  pulling  the  thong  backwards  and  forwards 
wliile  anotlier  watches  to  catch  the  sacred  spark. 

I  also  referred  to  the  non-existence  of  religion  among  certain 
savage  races,  and  as  the  Duke  correctly  observes,  I  argued  that  this 
was  probably  their  primitive  condition,  because  it  is  dillicult  to 
believe  that  a  people  which  had  once  possessed  a  religion  would  ever 
entirely  lose  it.* 

This  argument  filled  the  Duke  with  *  astonishment.'  Surely,  ho 
says,  '  if  there  is  one  fact  more  certain  than  another  in  respect  to 
the  nature  of  Man,  it  is  that  he  is  capable  of  losing  religious  know- 
ledge, of  ceasing  to  believe  in  religious  truth,  and  of  iiilling  away 
from  religious  duty.  If  by  "  religion  "  is  meant  the  existence 
merely  of  some  impressions  of  powers  invisible  and  supernatural, 
even  this,  we  know,  can  not  only  be  lost,  but  be  scornfully  disavowed 
by  men  who  arc  highly  civilised.'  Yet  in  the  very  same  page,  the 
Duke  goes  on  to  say,  *  the  most  cruel  and  savage  customs  in  the 
world  are  the  direct  effect  of  its  "religions."  And  if  men  could 
drop  religions  when  they  would,  or  if  they  could  even  form  the 
wish  to  get  rid  of  those  which  sit  like  a  nightmare  on  their  life, 
there  would  be  many  more  nations  without  a  "  religion  "  than  there 
are  found  to  be.  But  religions  can  neither  be  put  on  nor  cast  off 
like  garments,  according  to  their  utility,  or  according  to  their  beauty, 
or  according  to  taeir  power  of  comforting.' 

With  this  I  entirely  agree.  Man  can  no  more  voluntarily  abandon 
or  change  the  articles  of  his  religious  creed  than  he  can  make  one 
hair  black  or  white,  or  add  one  cubit  to  his  stature.  I  do  not  deny 
that  there  may  be  exceptional  cases  of  intellectual  men  entirely 
devoid  of  religion  ;  but  if  the  Duke  means  to  say  that  men  who  are 
highly  civilised,  habitually  or  frequently  lose,  and  scornfully  disavow 
religion,  I  can  only  say  that  I  should  adopt  such  an  opinion  with 
difficulty  and  regret.  There  is,  so  far  as  I  know,  no  evidence  on 
record  which  would  justify  such  an  opinion,  and  as  far  as  my  j^rivate 
experience  goes,  I  at  least  have  met  with  no  such  tendency.  It  is 
indeed  true  that  from  the  times  of  Socrates  downwards,  men  in 
advance  of  their  age  have  disavowed  particular  dogmas,  and  parti- 
cular myths;    but  the  Duke  of  Argyll  would,  I  am  sure,  not  con- 

*  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  oxjilain     question  tlio  possibility  of  a  change  in, 
to   anyone  that  I  did  not  intend  to     but  u  total  loss  of  religion. 


rnOGRESS    OF    RELIGIOUS    IDEAF5.      FETICIIISJI. 


310 


I 


fuse  a  desire  for  reformation  with  the  pcornful  disavowal  of  religion 
as  a  whole.  Seine  jihilosophers  may  object  to  jirayer.s  for  rain,  but 
they  arc  foremost  in  denouncing  the  Jolly  of  witchcraft ;  they  may 
regard  matter  as  aboriginal,  but  they  would  never  puj)pose  -with  the 
IJedskin  that  land  was  created  whilo  water  existed  from  the  be- 
ginning; nor  would  anyone  now  suppose  with  the  Soutli-Sca 
Islanders  that  tlie  Peerage  were  immortal,  but  not  conunoncrs.  If, 
indeed,  thero  is  'one  fact  moi'c  certain  than  another  in  respect  to  the 
nature  of  man,'  I  should  have  considered  it  to  be  the  gradual  diffu- 
sion of  religious  light,  and  of  nobler  concejjtions  as  to  the  nature  of 
God. 

The  lowest  savages  have  no  idea  of  a  deity  at  all.  Those  slightly 
more  advanced  reg.ird  him  as  an  enemy  to  be  dreaded,  but  who  may 
bo  resisted  with  a  fair  prospect  of  success,  who  may  be  cheated  by 
the  cunning  and  defied  by  the  strong.  Thus  the  natives  of-  tlu; 
Nicobar  islands  endeavour  to  terrify  their  deity  by  scarecrows,  and 
the  Negro  beats  his  fetish  if  his  prayers  are  not  granted.  As  tribes 
advance  in  civilisation,  their  deities  advance  in  dignity,  but  their 
power  is  still  limited  ;  one  governs  the  sea,  another  the  land ;  one 
reigns  over  the  plains,  another  among  the  mountains.  The  most 
powerful  are  vindictive,  cruel,  and  unjust.  They  retjuire  humilia- 
ting ceremonies  and  bloody  sacrifices.  But  few  races  have  arrived 
at  the  conception  of  an  omnipotent  and  beneficent  Deity. 

Perhaps  the  lowest  form  of  religion  may  be  considered  to  be  that 
presented  by  the  Australians,  which  consists  of  a  mere  unreasoning 
belief  in  the  existence  of  mysterious  beings.  The  native  who  has  in 
his  sleep  a  nightmare,  or  a  dream,  does  not  doubt  the  reality  of  that 
which  passes,  and  as  the  beings  by  whom  ho  is  visited  in  his  sleep 
are  unseen  by  his  friends  and  relations,  ho  regards  them  as  invisible. 

In  Fetichism  this  feeling  is  more  methodized.  The  Negro,  by  means 
of  witchcraft,  endeavours  to  make  a  slave  of  his  deity.  Thus  Fetich- 
ism is  almost  the  opposite  of  lleligion;  it  stands  towards  it  in  the 
Kime  relation  as  Alchemy  to  Chemistry,  or  Astrology  to  Astronomy ; 
and  shows  how  fundamentally  our  idea  of  a  deity  differs  from  that 
which  presents  itself  to  the  savage.  The  Negro  does  not  hesitate  to 
punish  a  refractory  Fetish,  and  hides  it  in  his  waistcloth  if  he  does 
not  wish  it  to  know  what  is  going  on.  Aladdin's  lamp  is,  in  fact, 
a  well-known  illustration  of  a  Fetish. 

A  further  stage,  and  the  superiority  of  the  higlicr  deities  is  more 
fully   recognised.      Everything    is  worshipped    indiserin.'inately — 


•350 


TUTKMISM. 


animals,  plants,  and  even  inanimate  oLjcctH.  In  cndeavonring  t) 
account  for  tho  worship  of  animals,  wc  must  romcinbcr  that  names 
are  very  frequently  taken  from  them.  Tiie  children  and  followers 
of  a  man  called  the  Bear  or  tho  Lion  would  make  that  a  tribal 
name.  Ilenco  tho  animal  itself  would  bo  first  respected,  at  last 
worshipped.  This  ibrm  of  religion  can  be  shown  to  have  existed, 
at  one  timo  or  another,  almost  all  over  the  world. 

'  The  Totem,'  says  Schoolcrrtll,  *  is  a  symbol  of  the  name  of  tho 
progenitor, — generally  somo  quadruped,  or  bird,  or  other  object  in 
the  animal  kingdom,  which  stands,  if  we  may  so  express  it,  as  the 
Rumamo  of  the  family.  It  is  always  some  animated  object,  and 
seldom  or  never  derived  from  the  inanimate  class  of  nature.  Its 
significant  importance  is  derived  from  the  fact  that  individuals  un- 
hesitatingly trace  their  lineage  from  it.  By  whatever  names  they 
may.be  called  during  their  life-time,  it  is  the  totem,  and  not  their 
personal  name,  that  is  recorded  on  the  tomb  or  "  adjedating  "  tlmt 
mari<s  the  place  of  burial.  Families  are  thus  traced  when  expanded 
into  bands  or  tribes,  the  multiplication  of  which,  in  North  America, 
has  been  very  great,  and  has  decreased,  in  like  ratio,  the  labours  of 
the  ethnologist.'  Totem  ism,  however,  is  by  no  means  confined  to 
America.  In  Central  India  '  the  Moondah  "  Enidhi,"  or  Oraon 
"  Minijrar,"  or  Eel  tribe,  will  not  kill  or  eat  that  fish.  The  Hawk, 
Crow,  or  Heron  tribes  will  not  kill  or  eat  those  birds.  Livingstone, 
quoted  in  Latham,  tells  us  that  the  subtribes  of  Bitshaunas  (or 
Bftchuanas)  are  similarly  named  afi;er  certain  animals,  and  a  tribe 
nev^r  eats  the  animal  from  which  it  is  named,  using  the  term  "  ila," 
hate  or  dread,  in  reference  to  killing  it.' ' 

Traces,  indeed,  of  Totemism,  more  or  less  distinct,  are  widely 
distributed,  and  often  connected  with  marriage  prohibitions. 

As  regards  inanimate  objects,  wo  must  remember  that  the  savage 
accounts  for  all  action  and  movement  by  life ;  hence  a  watch  is  to 
him  alive.  This  being  taken  in  conjunction  with  the  feeling  tliat 
anything  unusual  is '  great  medicine,'  leads  to  the  worship  of  any  re- 
markable inanimate  object.  Mr.  Fergusson  has  recently  attempted  to 
show  the  special  prevalence  of  Tree  and  Serpent  worship.  He  might, 
I  believe,  have  made  out  as  strong  a  case  for  many  other  objects. 
It  seems  clear  that  the  objects  worshipped  in  this  stage  are  neither 
to  be  legarded  as  emblems,  nor  are  they  personified.     Inanimate 


'  Trans.  Ethnological  Soc.  N.  S.,  vol.  vi.  p.  36. 


•  « 


IDOLATRY. 


ohJL'cts  have  spirits  as  well  as  men  ;  hciico  wl.cn  tlic  'svivcs  and 
shives  are  sacrificed,  the  weapons  also  arc  broken  in  tlie  grave,  so 
tliat  the  spirits  of  the  latter,  as  well  as  of  the  former,  may  accompany 
tlieir  master  to  tlie  other  worlJ. 

The  gradually  increasing  power  of  chii-fs  and  priests  led  to 
Anthropomorphism,  with  its  siicrifices,  teni])le3,  and  priests,  &c.  To 
this  stage  belongs  idolatry,  which  must  by  no  means  be  rc.::arded  as 
the  lowest  state  of  religion.  Solomon,*  indeed,  long  ago  pointed  out 
how  it  was  connected  with  monarchical  power. 

*  Whom  men  could  not  honour  in  presence,  because  they  dwelt 
far  off,  they  took  the  counterfeit  of  his  visage  from  far,  and  made  an 
express  image  of  a  king,  whom  they  honoured,  to  the  end  that  by 
this,  their  forwardness,  they  might  Hatter  him  that  was  absent,  as  if 
he  were  present. 

*  Also  the  singular  diligence  of  the  artificer  did  help  to  set  forward 
the  ignorant  to  more  superstition. 

'  For  he,  perad venture  willing  to  please  one  in  authority,  forced 
all  his  skill  to  make  the  resemblance  of  the  best  fashion. 

*  And  so  the  multitude,  .allured  by  the  grace  of  the  work, 
took  him  now  for  a  God,  which  a  little  before  was  but  honoured  a3 
a  man.' 

The  worship  of  principles  may  be  regarded  as  a  still  further^tago 
in  the  natural  development  of  religion. 

It  is  important  to  observe  that  each  stage  of  religion  is  superim- 
posed on  the  preceding,  and  that  bygone  beliefs  linger  on  among  the 
children  and  the  ignorant.  Thus  witchcraft  is  still  believed  in  by 
the  ignorant,  and  fairy  tales  fiourish  in  the  nursery. 

It  certainly  appears  to  me  that  the  gradual  development  of 
religious  ideas  among  the  lower  races  of  men  is  a  fair  argument  in 
opposition  to  the  view  that  savages  are  degenerate  descendants  of 
civilised  ancestors.  Archbishop  Whately  would  admit  the  con- 
nexion between  these  different  phases  of  religious  belief  but  I  think 
he  would  find  it  very  diflicult  to  show  any  process  of  natural 
degradation  and  decay  which  could  explain  the  quaint  errors  and 
opinions  of  the  lower  races  of  men,  or  to  account  for  the  lingering 
belief  in  witchcraft,  and  other  absurdities,  &c.,  in  civilised  races,  ex- 
cepting by  some  such  train  of  reasoning  as  that  which  I  have 
endeavoured  to  sketch. 

»  ^Y:s^lom,  xiv.  17. 


352 


TIIK    ITwUE    TIIEOnY    OP 


There  Is  anotlicr  caso  in  tlii.i  inoiuoir  wlieiTin  the  Duke,  altliongh 
gcnerall}'  a  I'uir  opponciit,  l)riiig.s  forward  an  unsuj>portable  accusji- 
tion.  He  criticises  severely  the  '  Four  Ages,'  generally  athnitted  l»y 
arclm'olegists,  cspeeially  referring  to  the  terms  Taiajolithic'  and 
'  Neolithic,'  wliieh  are  used  to  denote  the  two  earlier. 

I  have  no  wish  to  take  to  myself  in  particular  the  blame  wliich 
tlie  Duke  impartially  extends  to  archa?ologists  in  general,  but  having 
suggested  the  two  terms  in  question,  I  will  simply  place  side  by  side 
the  passage  in  wliich  they  first  appeared,  and  the  Duke's  criticism, 
and  confidently  ask  wliothcr  there  is  any  foundation  for  the  sweeping 
accusation  made  by  the  noble  Duke. 


■t) 


Tlie  Duke  says :  *  For  lierc  I 
must  observe  that  Arehonjlogists 
arc  using  kmguage  on  this  sub- 
ject which,  if  not  jiositively  erro- 
neous, requires,  at  least,  moro 
rigorous  definitions  and  limita- 
tions of  meaning  than  they  aie 
disposed  to  attend  to.  They  talk 
of  an  Old  Stone  Ago  (Palaeoli- 
thic), and  of  a  Newer  Stone  Ago 
(Neolithic),  and  of  a  Bronze  Age, 
and  of  an  Iron  Ago.  Now,  there 
is  no  proof  whatever  that  such 
Ages  ever  existed  in  the  world. 
It  may  be  true,  and  it  probably 
is  true,  that  most  nations  in  the 
progress  of  the  Arts  have  passed 
thi'ough  the  stages  of  using  stone 
for  implements  before  they  were 
acquainted  with  the  use  of  metals. 
Even  this,  however,  may  not  be 
true  of  all  nations.  In  Africa 
there  appear  to  be  no  traces  of 
any  time  when  the  natives  were 
not  acquainted  with  the  use  of 
iron,  and  I  am  informed  by  Sir 
Samuel  Baker  that  iron  ore  is 
so  common  in  Africa,  and  of  a 


IVIy  words,  in  proposing  the 
terms,  were  as  follows : — 

*  From  the  careful  study  of 
the  remains  which  have  come 
down  to  us,  it  would  appear  that 
the  prehistoric  archaeology  may 
be  divided  into  four  great  epochs. 

'  Firstly,  that  of  Drift,  when 
man  shared  the  possession  of 
Europe  with  the  Mammoth,  the 
cave-bear,  the  woolly-haired  rhi- 
noceros and  other  extinct  animals. 
This  we  may  call  the  "  Pala;oli- 
thic"  period. 

'  Secondly,  the  lateror  polished 
Stone  Age;  a  period  characterized 
l)y  beautiful  weapons  and  instru- 
ments made  of  flint  and  other 
kinds  of  stone,  in  which,  however, 
we  find  no  trace  of  the  knoAvledge 
of  any  metal,  excepting  gold, 
which  seems  to  have  been  some- 
times used  for  ornaments.  This 
Ave  may  call  the  Neolithic  period. 

*  Thirdly,  the  Bronze  Age,  in 
which  bronze  was  used  for  arms 
and  cutting  instruments  of  all 
kinds. 


TIIK    I'Ol'R    AGKS. 


kind  80  easily  rcduciMo  l)y  licat, 
nnd  its  use  iiii;:lit  w«  11  bo  di.s- 
covored  by  \\iv.  niiU'st  tribcji, 
Avlio  wen;  in  tlic  habit  of  lighting 
fire.-*.  Then  again  it  is  to  bu  re- 
inenibcrod  that  thcro  an;  sonu; 
countiics  in  the  world  Avlu-re 
stone  is  ;is  rare  and  dillicult  to 
get  as  metals. 

*The  groat  alluvial  jihilns  of 
INIesopotainia  are  a  case  in  point. 
Aocoi'dingly  wo  know  frcmj  the 
rcMuains  of  the  first  Chaldean 
monarchy  that  a  very  high  civili- 
f-ation  in  the  arts  of  agriculture 
and  of  commerce  coexisted  with 
^i  the  use  of  stone  implcmcsnts  of  a 

very  rude  character.  This  fact 
proves  that  rude  stone  imple- 
ments are  not  nccessjirily  any 
proof  whatever  of  a  really  barba- 
rous condition.  And  even  if  it 
Wire  true  that  the  use  of  stone 
has  in  all  cases  preceded  the  use 
of  metals,  it  is  quite  certain  that 
the  same  age  Avhich  was  an 
Ago  of  Stone  in  one  part  of  the 
world  Avas  an  Age  of  Metal  in 
the  other.  As  regards  the 
Eskimo  and  the  South  Sea 
islanders,  we  are  now,  or  were 
very  recently,  living  in  a  Stone 
Age; 


'FoiuMhly,  the  Iron  Age,  in 
Mliich  that  metal  liail  superseded 
bronze  for  arms,  axes,  knives, 
ttc. ;  bronze,  however,  still  being 
in  common  use  for  ornaments, 
and  lie(iuently  also  for  the 
handles  of  swords  and  other 
arms,  ])Ut  never  for  the  blades. 

'  Stone  weapons,  however,  of 
nanv  kinds  were  still  in  use 
during  tlie  Age  of  Bronze,  and 
even  dining  that  of  Iron.  So 
that  the  nu  re  presence  of  a  few 
Btone  implements  is  not  in  itself 
.'jufricient  evidence  that  any 
given  *'  find "  belongs  to  the 
Stone  Ago. 

'  In  order  to  prevent  misapi)re- 
hcnsion,  it  may  be  as  well  to 
state  at  once,  that  I  only  apply 
this  classification  to  Kurope, 
though  in  all  probability  it  might 
also  be  extended  to  the  neigh- 
bouring parts  of  Asia  and  Africa. 
As  regards  other  civilised  coun- 
tries, Chinaand  Japan  for  instance, 
Ave,  as  yet,  know  nothing  of  their 
prehistoric  archaeology.  It  is 
evident,  also,  that  some  nations, 
such  as  the  Fucgians,  Anda- 
mancrs,  &c.,  are  even  now  otdy 
in  an  Age  of  Stone.' 


I  cannot,  of  course,  on  this  occasion  rej)cat  the  arguments  adduced 
in  my  first  memoir.  I  Avill,  liOAvever,  now  bring  forward  one  or  two 
additional  reasons  in  support  of  my  view.  There  is  a  considerable  body 
of  evidence  tending  to  shoAV  that  the  offspring  produced  by  crossing 
different   varieties  tends  to  revcit  to  the  tyjjc  from   which  these 


varieties  are   descended. 


Thus   Tegotmeier    states   that   *a  cross 


a5i 


EviDKNcn  nnnivKi)  from  crossed  races, 


I  a 


])('t\votMi  two  non-slttin;;  vari»'tlos  (of  tlic  common  fn\\'\)  almost 
iiivariiiMy  jiroiliiccs  a  moiiirn'l  tliat  bocomos  broixly,  atid  sits  with 
roniarkahlc  steadiness.'  Mr.  Darwin  p,\vvH  several  cases  in  wliieh 
such  hybrids  or  mongrels  arc  singnlarly  wild  and  unt'imoable,  the 
mule  being  a  familiar  instanco.  Messrs.  IJoitard  and  Corbie  state 
tliat,  when  they  cro.ssod  certain  breeds  of  pigeons,  llicy  invariably 
get  some  young  ones  coloured  like  the  wild  C.  liiu'a.  Mr.  Darwin 
repeated  these  experiments,  and  found  the  statement  fully  confirmed. 

So  ngain  the  same  is  the  case  with  {i»wls.  Tens  of  tlu)us!\nds  of 
tJie  lilack  Spanish  and  the  white  silk  fowls  might  1)0  ])red  without 
a  single  red  li.'ather  appearing,  yet  Mr.  Darwin  foiuid  tiiat  on  crossing 
them  lie  immcidiately  obtaitKMl  s[)ecimens  willi  red  feathers.  Similar 
results  have  been  obtained  with  ducks,  rabbits,  and  cattle.  Mules 
also  have  not  unfrefpiently  barred  logs.  It  is  unnecessary  to  give 
these  cases  in  detail,  because  Mr.  Darwin's  work  or*  *  Animals  and 
IMaiits  under  Domestication'  is  in  the  hands  of  every  naturalist. 

Applying  the  same  test  to  man,  Mr.  Darwin  observes  that  crossed 
races  of  men  are  singularly  siivage  and  degraded.  *  Many  years  ago,' 
he  says,  *  I  was  struck  by  the  fact  that  in  South  America  men  of 
complicated  descent  between  Negroes,  Indians,  and  Spaniards,  seldom 
liad,  whatever  the  cause  might  be,  a  good  expression.  Livingstone 
remarks  that  "  it  is  imaccountal)le  why  half-castes  are  so  much  more 
cruel  than  the  Portuguese,  but  such  is  undoubtedly  the  case."  A 
native  remarked  to  Livingstone  "  God  made  white  men,  and  God 
made  black  men,  l)ut  the  devil  made  half-castes !"  When  two  races, 
both  low  in  the  scale,  are  crossed,  the  progeny  seems  to  be  eminently 
bad.  Thus  the  noble-hearted  Humboldt,  who  felt  none  of  that 
prejudice  against  the  inferior  races  now  so  current  in  England,  speaks 
in  strong  terms  of  the  bad  and  savage  disposition  of  Zambas,  or 
half-castes  between  Indians  and  Negroes,  and  this  conclusion  has 
been  arrived  at  by  various  observers.  From  those  facts  we  may 
perhaps  infer  that  the  degraded  state  of  so  many  half-castes  is  in^pait 
due  to  reversion  to  a  primitive  and  savage  condition,  induced  by  the 
act  of  crossing,  as  well  as  to  the  unfavourable  moral  conditions 
under  which  they  generally  exist.' 

I  confess,  however,  that  I  am  not  sure  how  far  this  may  not  lie 
accounted  for  by  the  unfortunate  circumstances  in  which  half-breeds 
are  generally  placed.  The  half-breeds  between  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Company's  servants  and  the  native  women,  being  well  treated  and 
looked  after,  appear  to  be  a  cieditablc  and  well-behaved  set.* 


'  Dunn's  '  Oregon  Tei-rit  try,'  p.  117. 


'< 
il>. 


8AVAfiES,    AND    C'lIIIiDREN. 


wl)    almost 
il  Hits  with 
9  in  wliich 
noahic,  tliu 
orhit!  Hfafo 
invariably 
Ir.  Darwin 
cc>nfirnic(I. 
louHjinils  (if 
'd  witliout 
on  croHsintr 
Similar 
0.     Mules 
ry  to  givo 
linials  and 
iralist. 
lat  crossed 
yvars  ago,' 
•a  men  of 
Is,  seldom 
vingstono 
uch  more 
tasc."     A 
and  0(1(1 
U'o  races, 
imincntly 
0  of  tliaft 
id,  speaks 
mba.",  or 
ision  lias 
we  may 
s  injiait 
il  b}'  tho 
)nditioiis 

'  not  lie 
f-brecds 
)n's  Bay 
ted  and 


I  would  also  call  jiarticular  nftention  to  tho  retnarkablo  similarity 
l»(^tween  tho  mental  eharacteristics  of  savages  and  those  ofehililron. 
'  Tho  Abi[)ones,'  says  Dobrit/holler,'  *  when  they  are  unable  to  com- 
prelicnd  anytliing  at  fiivt  siglit,  soon  grow  weary  of  examining  it, 
and  cry  *  or(iuccnum  ?'  what  is  it  after  all  ?  Sometitnos  the  (Juaranics, 
when  comi)letely  puzzled,  knit  their  brows  and  cry  "  tupa  oi(iuaa," 
(lod  knows  what  it  is.  Since  tlioy  possess  such  small  reasoning 
powers,  and  have  so  little  inclination  to  exert  them,  it  is  no  wcmder 
that  they  are  neither  able  nor  willing  to  argue  one  thing  from  anotht'r.' 

Kiehardson  says  of  the  Dogrib  Indians,  *  that  however  high  tho 
reward  they  expected  to  receive  on  reaching  their  destination,  tlu^y 
could  not  bo  depended  on  to  carry  letters.  A  slight  dillieulty,  tho 
j)rospect  of  a  bamiuct  on  venison,  or  a  sudden  impulse  to  visit  somi; 
friend,  Avero  sufllcient  to  turn  them  aside  for  an  indefinite  length  of 
time.'*  Le  Vaillant'  also  observes  of  the  Namaquas,  that  they 
ch)sely  resembled  children  in  their  great  curiosity. 

M.  Bourien,-*  speaking  of  the  wild  tribes  in  tho  Malayan  Peninsula, 
Bays  that  an  *  inconstant  humour,  fickle  and  erratic,  together  with  a 
mixture  of  fear,  timidity,  and  diffidence,  lies  at  tho  bottom  of  their 
character,  they  seem  always  to  think  that  they  would  bo  bettor 
in  any  other  place  than  in  the  one  they  occupy  at  the  time.  Liko 
children,  their  actions  seem  to  bo  rarely  guided  by  reflection,  and 
they  almost  always  act  impulsively.'  The  tears  of  tho  South- Sea 
Islanders,  'like  those  of  children,  were  always  ready  to  express  any 
l)as.sion  that  was  strongly  excited,  and,  like  those  of  children,  they 
also  aj)peared  to  bo  forgotten  as  soon  as  shed.'  '^ 

At  Tahiti  Captain  Cook  mentions  that  Obcroa,  the  Queen,  and 
Tootahah,  one  of  the  principal  chiefs,  amused  themselves  with  two 
largo  dolls.  D'Urvillo  tells  us  that  a  New  Zealand  chief,  Tauvarya 
by  name,  '  cried  liko  a  child  because  tho  sailors  spoilt  his  favourito 
cloak  by  powdering  it  with  flour.'  ^  Williams  ^  mentions  that  in 
Feejee  not  only  the  women,  but  even  tho  men  give  vent  to  their 
feelings  by  crying.  Burton  even  says  that  among  East  Aliicans  tho 
men  cried  more  frequently  than  the  women.*' 

Not  only  do  siivages  closely  resemble  children  in  their  general 


*  Cdok's  first  Voyapr,  p.  103. 

•  V(j1.  ii.  p.  398.     See  nUo  '  Yate's 


'  Ills,  of  the  Ahipones,  vol.  ii.  p.  /J'.). 
'  Arctic  Expedition,  vol.  ii.  p.  23. 

*  Travels  in  Africa,  1776,   vol.  iii.     Now  Zealand,'  p.  101 
p.  12.  *  Fiji  and  the  Fijians,  vol.  ii.  p.  121. 

*  Trans,  Ethn.  Soc.  N.  S.  vol.  iii.  p.  78.         ■  Lake  Regions,  p.  332. 


I) 


};i 


i 


LANOUAfJE   OP   SAVAOES. 


(iluirnctor,  l»iit  a  ciiiiotis  similarity  cxlHtH  ln'twccn  tlicni  in  many 
Hiiiiill  iK>irits.  l<\)r  iiiMtaiMM',  tin;  tcmlcncy  to  rciltiiilicafion,  whiili  in 
HO  cliaracU'iistic  of  cliildnn,  |)ri'vail.s  rcmarkaliiy  ftlno  amongst 
RHVagcfl.  Tlin  first  lOOO  words  in  KiiliJinlson'H  dictionary  (down  to 
allt'j;;*'),  contain  oidy  three,  naiiicly,  adscititious,  advuiititious,  agi- 
tJitor,  and  cv(!n  in  tlieso  it  in  reduced  to  a  mininium.  Tliero  is  not 
a  singlo  word  like  a/// <////,  eveninf^ ;  (de  ake,  eternal;  aki  aki,  n 
l»ird;  aniwdtiiu'dy  the  raitd»ow;  cnjn  w/zyrr,  agrnonient ;  angi  anf/i\ 
al)oar<l ;  aro  am,  in  front ;  ariKn'n,  to  woo  ;  ati  ati\  to  drivo  out  ; 
<nr(t  (iwa,  a  valley  ;  or  (uramja  ictinyn,  lio|)e,  words  of  a  elass  wlileh 
aboinid  in  savage  laiigujigea. 

'J'lio  first  lOUO  words  in  a  French  dictionary  I  found  to  contain 
only  two  reduplications,  namely,  anana  and  assassin,  both  of  which 
aro  derived  from  a  lower  lucc,  and  cannot,  strictly  speaking,  bo 
regarded  as  French. 

Again  1000  (ierman  words,  taking  for  variety  the  letters  C  andD, 
contain  six  cases,  namely,  Cacadii  (Cockatoo),  cacao,  cocon  (cocoon), 
cocoshaiim,  a  cocao  tree,  cocosnitss,  cocao  nut,  and  (A^^f^c/J,  of  which 
again  all  but  the  last  are  foreign. 

Lastly,  the  first  1000  (J reek  words  contained  only  two  redupli- 
cations, one  of  which  is  ((/5«p/5(i/<oi'. 

For  comparison  with  the  above  I  h.avc  examined  the  vocabularies 
of  seventeen  savage  tribes,  and  the  results  arc  given  in  the  following 
Table  r— 


liANtiUAdK    OF    HAVAliKS. 


:io7 


NiimJwr 

NiinOMT  ! 

rro|>ir- 

Lai\m*ee* 

of  wiinlrt 

iif  mill-  1 
•lit  iitloni* 

3 

tioii  lor 
mil. 

1 
Kupnpo. 
Kii;,'li.Mh    . 

1000 

3 

Frt'iifh     . 

1000 

•J 

'2 

r.nfh  fun  ipn. 

(Icrtiian   . 

1000 

(S 

(i 

All  liiit  niic  foniirn. 

Oroik       . 

1000 

2 

2 

Ouo  Itoiiig  i/aaf'/3af>of. 

1  Afrii'ii. 

JJtcfjimn 

1S8 

7 

37 

Lifhti-nHtciii. 

JiosjcHiiiiin 

1  -JO 

5 

38 

'  » 

Niiiiiii(|Uii  IlutU'iitut 

1000 

7o 

7o 

H.  Tiiid.iII. 

Mjvin^wo 

IJOI 

70 

(iO 

."^iir»\vdt'ii  iiiul  I'rall. 

I'll  hip 

201 

28 

i:i7 

Koi'llo. 

Mbuton    . 

207 

27 

100 

II 

Aniorii'ii. 

]>iiri(«n  Indiana 

18t 

13 

70 

Tfiinx.  Eth.  Sdc.  vol.vi. 

Ojibwii     . 

2h:i 

21 

71 

Si-ln)<)lorat't. 

Tiijiy  (Hmzil)  . 

1000 

C(J 

(.0 

(JuiiHulvi'Z  DiaH. 

Nejiroiil. 

iirumer  Ih1jiii<1 

211 

37 

170 

MGillivriiy. 

Ki'ilsciir  Hiiy    . 

1J-) 

10 

80 

1 

II 

Louisiado 

138 

22 

100 

II 

Krroob     . 

/)13 

23 

4;') 

1  Juki'H. 

Lowis  Murray  Island 

60G 

19 

38 

II 

Australia. 

Kowrarega       , 

720 

26 

36 

M'Gillivray. 

Polyncsitt. 
lonpa 

1000 

iro 

100 

Mariner. 

Now  Zealand    . 

1300 

220 

160 

Dietfinl-ach. 

For  African  languages  I  liave  cxaminctl  the  Bci'tjuan  and  lios- 
jcsman  dialects,  given  by  Lichtenstciu  in  his  '  Travels  in  Sonthera 
Africa;'  the  Namaquu  Hottentot,  as  given  hy  Tindall  in  his 
*  Grammar  and  Vocabulary  of  the  Namaqua  Ilottcntot ; '  the  Me- 
pongwe  of  the  Gaboon,  from  the  Grammar  of  the  Mpongwc  language 
published  by  Snowden  and  Trail  of  New  York  ;  and  lastly  tlic 
Fulup  and  Mbofon  languages  from  Koelle'.s  '  Polyglotta  Africana.' 
For  America,  the  Ojibwa  vocabulary,  given  in  Schoolcraft's  '  Indian 
Tribes ; '  t!-3  Darien  vocabulary,  from  the  Gth  vol.  N.  S.  of  tlio 
Etlmological  Society's  Transactions;  and  the  Tupy  vocabulary, 
given  in  A.  Gonsalves  Dias's  *  Diccionaria  da  Lingua  Tupy  chaniada 
lingua  geral  dos  indigenas  do  Brazil.'  To  these  I  have  added  the 
languages  spoke  on  Brumer  Island,  at  Redscar  Bay,  Kowraroga, 
and  at  the  Louisiade,  as  collected  by  l\I'Gillivray  in  the  '  Voyage  of 
the  Rattlesnake ;  '  and  the  dialects  of  Erroob  and  Lewis  Murray 
Island,  from  Jukes's  *  Voyage  of  the  Fly.'     Lastly,  for  Polynesia,  the 


ii 


fl 


I 


4 


m 


358 


TENDENCY   TO   REDUPLICATIONS. 


Tongan  dictionary  given  by  ^larincr,  and  that  of  Xcw  Zt'.iland  by 
DiefTenbach. 

Tho  result  is,  that  while  in  the  four  European  languages  "wc  get 
about  two  reduplications  in  1000  words,  in  the  Kivage  ones  tho 
number  varies  from  thirty-eight  to  170,  being  from  twenty  to 
eighty  times  as  many  in  proportion. 

In  the  Polynesian  andFcejee  Islands  they  are  particularly  numerous; 
thus,  In  Feejce,  such  names  as  Somosomo,  Raki  raki,  Kaviravi,  Luma- 
luma  are  numerous.  Perhaps  the  most  familiar  New  Zealand  Avords 
are  mercmere,  patoo  patoo,  and  kivi  kivi.  So  generally,  however,  is 
reduplication  a  characteristic  of  savage  tongues  that  it  even  gave  rise 
to  the  term  '  barbarous.' 

The  love  of  pets  is  very  strongly  developed  among  savages,  ^fany 
instances  have  been  given  by  Mr.  Galton  in  his  Memoir  on  the 
*  Domestication  of  Animals.'  ' 

Among  minor  indications  may  be  mentioned  the  use  of  the  rattle. 
Originally  a  sacred  and  mysterious  instrument,  as  it  is  still  among 
some  of  the  Siberian  Ked-skin  and  Brazilian  ^  tribes,  it  has  with  uj 
degenerated  into  a  child's  toy.  Thus  DobritzhofFer  tells  us,  the  Abi- 
pones  at  a  certain  season  of  the  year  worshipped  the  Pleiads.  The 
ceremony  consisted  in  a  feast  acconipmicd  Avith  dancing  and  music, 
accompanied  with  praises  of  the  Siars,  during  which  the  principal 
priestess  *  who  conducts  the  festive  ceremonies,  dances  at  intervals, 
rattling  a  gourd  full  of  hardish  fruit-secds  to  musical  time,  and 
whirling  round  to  tho  right  with  out  foot,  and  to  the  left  with 
another,  withouc  ever  removing  from  one  spot,  or  in  the  least  varying 
her  motions.'  '  Spix  and  Martins  *  thus  describe  a  Coroado  chi  jf : 
• — '  In  the  middle  of  the  assembly,  and  nearest  to  the  pot,  stood  tho 
chief,  who,  by  his  strength,  cunning,  and  courage,  had  obtained 
some  command  over  them,  and  had  received  from  Marlier  the  title 
of  Captain.  In  his  right  hand  he  held  the  maraca,  the  above-men- 
tioned Castanet,  which  the}  call  gringerina,  and  rattled  with  it,  beat- 
ing time  with  his  right  foot.'  *  The  Congo  Negroes  had  a  great 
wooden  rattle,  upon  which  they  took  their  oaths.'*     The  rattle  also 


"  Trans.  Ethn.  Soc.  vol.  iii.  p.  122. 

*  Martins,  Von   dem  Rectszustand. 
Ur.  Brasiliens,  p.  34. 

*  Dobritzhoffcr,  vol.  ii.  p.  65.     Soo 
also  p.  72. 


*  Tmvols  in  Braisil.  London,  1824, 
vol.  ii.  p.  234. 

'  Astley's  Coll.  of  Voyages,  vol.  iii. 
p.  233. 


ANCIENT   CEREMONIES   AND    MODERN    GAMES. 


359 


is  very  important  among  the  Indiana  of  North  America.'  When  any 
person  is  sick,  tlio  sorcerer  or  medicine-man  brings  liia  sacred 
rattle  and  shakes  it  over  him.  Tliis,  says  rrescott,  *  is  the  principal 
catholicon  for  all  diseases.'  Catlin '^  also  describes  the  'rattle'  as 
being  of  great  importance.  Some  tribes  have  a  sacred  drum,  closely 
resembling  that  of  the  Lapps.*  When  an  Indian  is  ill,  the  magician, 
says  Carver,*  'sits  by  the  patient  day  and  night,  rattling  in  his  earn 
a  gourd-shell  filled  with  dried  beans,  called  a  cliichicone.' 

Klemm*  also  remarks  on  the  groat  significance  attached  to  the 
rattle  throughout  America,  and  Stuud  even  thought  that  it  "vvaa 
worshipped  as  a  divinity.^ 

Schoolcraft'  also  gives  a  figure- of  Oshkabaiwis,  the  Iicdskin 
medical  chief,  'holding  in  his  hand  the  magic  rattle,'  which  is  indeed 
the  usual  emblem  of  authority  in  the  American  pictographs.  I 
know  no  case  of  a  savage  infant  using  the  rattle  as  a  plaything. 

Tossing  halfpence,  as  dice,  again,  which  used  to  be  a  sacred  and 
solemn  mode  of  consulting  the  oracles,  is  now  a  mere  game  lor 
children. 

klo  again  the  doll  is  a  hybrid  between  the  baby  and  the  fetish,  and 
exhibiting  the  contradictory  characters  of  its  parents,  becomes  singu- 
larly unintelligible  to  grown-up  people.  iSlr.  Tylor  has  pointed 
out  other  illustrations  of  this  argument,  and  I  Avould  refer  those 
who  feel  interested  in  this  part  of  the  subject  to  his  exoeller  t 
work. 

Dancing  is  another  case  in  point.  '>Vith  us  it  is  a  mere  amtise- 
ment.  Among  siivages  it  is  an  important  and,  in  some  cases,  re- 
ligious ceremon3\  '  If,'  says  Kobcrtson, "  *  any  intercourse  be 
necessary  between  two  American  tribes,  the  ambassadors  of  the  one 
approach  in  a  solemn  dance,  and  prei5er)t  the  calumet  or  emblem  of 
peace  ;  he  sachems  of  the  other  receive  it  with  the  same  ceremony. 
If  war  is  denounced  against  an  enemy,  it  is  by  a  dance,  expressive  of 
the  resentment  which  they  feel,  and  of  the  vengeance  which  they 
meditate.  "If  the  Avrath  of  their  gods  is  to  be  appeased,  or  their 
beneficence  to  be  celebrated,  if  tiK^^^  rojoice  at  the  birth  of  a  child,  or 
inourn  the  death  of  a  friend,  they  have  dances  appropriated  to  each 


'  Prescott  in  Schoolcraft's  'Indian 
Tribes,' vol.  ii.  pp.  179,  180. 

'  American  Indians,  vol.  i.  pp.  39, 
40,  163,  &c. 

»  Catlin,  I.  c.  p.  40. 

*  Travels,  p.  385. 


*  C'lltiirgochichto,  vol.  ii.  p.  172. 

'  M(Kurs  dos  Suuvagcs  Amurica'ns, 
vol.  ii.  p.  297. 

'  Indian  Tribes,  pt.iii.  pp.  490-492. 

*  Robrrtson's   America,   bk.   iv.    p. 
133. 


ii  i 


!:        I 


II 


1  ■ 

I 


3G0 


DEVELOPMENT   OP   THE    INDIVIUUAL, 


!f 


l^'l 


m 


11  c 


'      \ 


of  these  situations,  and  suited  to  tlic  difTeront  sentiments  with  wliirli 
tlicy  are  then  animated.  If  a  person  is  indisposed,  a  dance  is  pre- 
scribed as  the  most  efTcctual  means  of  restoring  him  to  liealth  :  and 
if  he  himself  cannot  endure  the  fatigue  of  such  an  exercise,  tlio 
physician  or  conjuror  performs  it  in  his  name,  as  if  the  virtue  of  his 
activity  could  be  transferred  to  his  patient.' 

But  it  is  unnecessary  to  multiply  illustrations.  Every  one  who 
lias  read  much  on  the  subject  will  admit  the  truth  of  the  statement. 
It  explains  the  capricious  treatment  which  so  many  white  men  have 
received  from  savage  potentates;  how  they  have  been  alternately 
petted  and  illtreated,  at  one  time  loaded  with  the  best  of  everything, 
at  another  neglected  or  put  to  death. 

The  close  resemblance  existing  in  ideas,  langungn,  habits,  and 
character  between  savages  and  children,  though  generally  admitted, 
has  usually  been  disposed  of  in  a  passing  sentence,  and  regarded 
rather  as  a  curious  accident  than  as  an  important  truth.  Yet  from 
several  points  of  view  it  possesses  a  high  interest.  Better  imder- 
stood,  it  might  have  saved  us  many  national  misfortunes^  from  the 
loss  of  Captain  Cook  down  to  the  Abyssinian  war.  It  has  also  a 
direct  bearing  on  the  present  discussion. 

The  opinion  is  rapidly  gaining  ground  among  naturalists,  that  the 
development  of  the  individual  is  an  epitome  of  that  of  the  species,  a 
conclusion  which,  if  fully  borne  out,  will  evidently  prove  most 
instructive.  Already  many  fjicts  are  on  record  which  render  it,  to 
say  the  least,  highly  probable.  Birds  of  the  eamo  genus,  or  of 
closely  allied  genera,  Avhich,  when  mature,  dilTer  much  in  colour, 
are  often  very  similar  when  young.  The  young  of  the  Lion  and  the 
Puma  are  often  striped,  and  foetal  AVjiales  have  teeth.  Leidy  has 
fcihown  that  the  milk-teeth  of  the  genus  Eqxius  resemble  the  perma- 
nent teeth  of  Anchitheriiim,  while  ilie  milk-teeth  of  Anchitherhmi 
again  approximate  to  the  dental  system  of  Merychippv  :.*  Eutimeyer, 
while  calling  attention  to  this  i"iterebting  observation,  adds  that  the 
milk-teeth  of  Equus  caballus  in  the  same  way,  and  stiil  hioro  those 
ol'  E.fossilis,  resemble  the  permanent  ttcth  o{  IFipparion,^ 

Agassiz,  according  to  Darwin,  regards  it  as  a  '  law  of  nature,'  that 
the  young  states  of  each  species  and  group  resemble  older  forms  of 
the  same  group;  and  Darwin  himself  says,'  that  *  in  two  or  more 


'  Proo,  Acad.  Nat.  Soc.  riiiladolphia,     Pferde.     Easle,  1 8G3. 
1858,  p.  26.  '  Origin   of    Species,    4th   edition, 

*  Beitrage  zurkenutnisa  dor  fossilcfn     p.  532. 


AND   THAT    OF   THE    SPECIES. 


3G1 


i 


groups  of  animals,  however  mucli  they  may  at  first  JifTcr  rrom  each 
other  in  stmcture  and  habits,  if  th(>y  pass  through  ck)scly  similar 
embryonic  stages,  wc  may  feel  almost  assured  that  they  have 
descended  from  the  same  parent  form,  and  are  therefore  clohcly 
related.'      So  also  Mr.  Herbert   Spencer    says,'    '  Each 


organism 


exhibits  within  a  short  space  of  time,  a  series  of  changes  which,  when 
supposed  to  occupy  a  period  indefinitely  great,  and  to  go  on  in 
various  ways  instead  of  one  way,  gives  us  a  tolerably  clear  concep- 
tion of  organic  evolution  in  general.' 

It  may  be  said  that  this  argument  involves  the  acceptance  of  the 
Darwinian  hypothesis  ;  this  would,  however,  be  a  mistake ;  the 
objection  miglit  indeed  be  tenable  if  men  belonged  to  different 
species,  but  it  cannot  fairly  bo  urged  by  those  who  regard  all 
mankind  as  descended  from  common  ancestors ;  and,  in  fact,  it  is 
strongly  held  by  Agassiz,  one  of  Mr.  Darwin's  most  uncompromising 
opponents.  Kegarded  from  this  point  of  view,  the  similarity  ex- 
isting between  savages  and"  children  assumes  a  singidar  importance 
and  becomes  almost  conclusive  as  regards  the  question  now  at  issue. 

The  Duke  ends  his  work  with  the  expression  of  a  belief  that  man, 
*  even  in  his  most  civilised  condition,  is  capable  of  degradation,  that 
his  knowledge  may  decay,  and  that  his  religion  may  be  los^t,'  That 
this  is  true  of  individuals,  I  do  not  of  course  deny ;  that  it  holds 
good  with  the  human  nice,  I  cannot  believe.*  Far  more  true,  far 
more  noble,  as  it  seems  to  me,  are  the  concluding  passap^es  of  Lord 
Dunraven's  opening  address  to  the  Cambrian  Archroological  Associ- 
ation, *  that  if  we  look  back  through  the  entire  period  of  the  past 
history  of  man,  as  exhibited  in  the  result  of  archaeological  investiga- 
tion, we  can  scarcely  fail  to  perceive  that  the  whole  exhibits  one 
grand  scheme  of  progression,  which,  notwithstanding  partial  periods 
of  decline,  has  for  its  end  the  ever-increasing  civilisation  of  man, 
and  the  gradual  development  of  his  higher  faculties,  and  for  its 


t!  i' 


i| 


i, 
p 


^  Principles  of  Biology,  vol.  i.  p.  3 19. 

'  The  Duke  appears  to  consider  tliiit 
the  first  men,  though  deficient  in 
knowledge  of  tho  mechanical  arts, 
were  morally  and  intellectually  supe- 
rior, or  at  least  equal,  to  those  of  the 
present  d.ay ;  and  it  is  remarkable 
that  supporting  such  a  view  he  should 
regard  himself  as  a  champion  of  ortho- 
doxy.   Adam  is  represented  to  us  in 


Genesis  not  only  as  naked,  and  subse- 
quently clothed  with  leaves,  but  as 
unable  to  resist  the  most  trivial  temp- 
tation, and  as  entertaining  very  gross 
and  anthropomorphic  conceptions  of 
the  Deity.  In  fact  in  all  three  cha- 
racteristics— in  his  mode  of  life,  in  his 
moral  condition,  and  in  his  intellectual 
conceptions — Adam  was  a  t^  pical 
Savage. 


3G2 


DEVELOPMENT   OF   THi.   INDIVIDUAL. 


object  the  continual  manipulation  of  the  design,  the   power,  the 
wisdom,  and  the  goodness  of  Almighty  God.' 

I  confess  therefore  that,  after  giving  the  arguments  of  the  Duke  of 
Argyll  my  most  attentive  and  candid  consideration,  I  see  no  reason 
to  adopt  his  melancholy  conclusion,  but  I  remain  persuaded  that  the 
past  history  of  man  has,  on  the  whole,  been  one  of  progress,  and 
that,  in  looking  forward  to  the  future,  wc  are  justified  in  doing  so 
with  confidence  and  with  hope. 


NOTES. 


Page  52. 

Position  of  Wo7nen  in  Australia} 

*  Foemina)  scse  per  totam  pene  vitam  prostituunt.  A^ud  plurimaa 
tribus  juventutcm  utriusqiie  sexus  sine  discrimine  concumbere 
in  usus  est.  Si  juvenis  forte  indigenorum  coetum  quendam  in 
castris  nianentem  adveniat,  ubi  quaivia  sit  puella  innupta,  mos 
est :  nocte  veniente  et  cubantibus  omnibus,  illam  ex  loco  ex- 
surgere  et  juvenem  accidentem  cum  illo  per  noctera  manere 
unde  in  sedem  propriam  ante  diem  redit.  Cui  foemina  sit,  earn 
amicis  libenter  pncbet ;  si  in  itinere  sit,  uxori  in  castris  manenti 
aliquia  supplet  illi  vires.  Advenis  ex  longinquo  accedentibus 
fceminas  ad  tempus  dare  hospitis  esse  boni  judicatur.  Viduia  et 
foeminis  jam  senescentibus  sa?pe  in  id  traditis,  quandoque  etiam 
invitis  et  insciis  cognatis,  adolescentes  utuntur.  Puellaj  tenera)  a 
decimo  primum  anno,  et  pueri  a  decimo  tertio  vel  quarto,  inter  so 
miscentur.  Senioribus  mos  est,  si  forte  gentium  plurium  castra 
appropinquant,  viros  noctu  hinc  inde  transeuntes,  uxoribus  alienis 
uti  et  in  sua  castra  ex  utraque  parte  mane  redire. 

*  Temporibus  quinetiam  certis,  machina  qutedam  ex  ligno  ad  formam 
ovi  facta,  sacia  et  mystica,  nam  fceminas  aspicere  baud  licitum,  decem 
plus  minus  uncias  longa  et  circa  quatuor  lata,  insculpta  ac  figuria 
diversis  omata,  et  ultimam  perforata  partem  ad  longam  (plerumque 
e  crinibus  humanis  textam)  inserendam  chordam  cui  nomen  "  Moo 
yumkarr,"  extra  castra  in  gyrum  versata,  stridore  magno  e  percusso 
a?re  facto,  libertatem  coeundi  juventuti  esse  tum  concessam  omnibus 
indicat.  Parentes  sa?pe  infantum,  viri  uxoinim  quaestum  corporum 
faciunt.  In  urbe  Adelaide  panis  pramio  parvi  aut  paucorum 
denariorum    meretrices    fieri   eas  libenter   cogunt.     Facile   potest 


Eyre's  Discoveries,  Sec,  ii.  320, 


3G1 


NOTES. 


intelligi,  Jimorcm  inter  nuptos  vix  posse  es«e  grandi'm,  quum  omni.-i 
quae  ad  fujminas  atlinciit,  honiiniim  arbitrio  ordiucntur  et  tanta 
fiexuum  societati  laxitas,  ct  adolcscentcs  quibiis  ita  irmltrc  ardorU 
cxplcndi  dautur  occasioiics,  liuud  inagiioperc  uxorcs,  nisi  ut  scrvoa 
dcsidcraturos.' 

Page  GG. 

Adoption. 

'  Adjiciondum  et  hoc,  quod  post  evectioneni  ad  Deos,  Juno,  Jovis 
suasu,  filium  silii  Ilerculem  adoptJivit,  et  omne  deinceps  tempus 
materna  ipsum  benevolentia  complexa  fuerit.  Illam  adoptioncni 
hoc  modo  factara  perhibcnt :  Juno  lectum  ingrcssa,  Ilerculem 
corpori  suo  admotum,  ut  verum  imitaretur  partum,  subter  vest»s 
ad  terrain  dcmisit.  Quern  in  hoc  usque  tempus  adoptionis  ritum 
barbari  observant.' ^ 

Tage  87. 

Expiation  for  Marriage. 

Mela^  tells  us  that  among  the  Auziles,  another  ^Ethiopian  tri1)e, 
*  Feminia  solemne  est,  nocte,  qua  nubunt,  omnium  stupro  patere, 
qui  cum  munere  advenerint :  et  tum,  cum  plurimis  concubuisse, 
maximum  decus  ;  in  reliquum  pudicitia  insignia  esc.' 

Speaking  of  the  Nasamonians,  Herodotus  observes : 

irpHrov  ^£  ynfiiot'TOQ  Na<To/iwi'oc  av^po^f  vo^oq  iarX  t>iv  vv^tfn)v 
vvKTi  T1)  rrpuiTT}  dia  TrdfTun'  die^eXdeli'  rail'  ^otrvjuoioir  ^layo^iirriv'  tUv 
Ze.  i}Q  iKaoTO'^  oi  fXf)(Pij,  hi^oi  ^oipoy  to  lif  i\r}  (ptpo^ivoQ  ti,  o'lKuv.^ 

Diodorus^  also  gives  a  very  similar  account  of  marriage  in  the 
Balearic  Islands. 

The  passage  in  St.  Augustin  is  as  follows  : 

*  Sed  quid  hoc  dicam,  cum  ibi  sit  et  Priapus  nimius  masculiis, 
super  cujus  immanissimum  et  turpissimum  fascinum  sedere  nova 
nupta  jubeatur,  more  honestissimo  et  religiosissimo  matronarum.'^ 

Lastly,  in  his  description  of  Babylonian  customs,  Herodotus  says  :  ^ 
O  It   ^ff  aiff)(^i(TT0S  Tujy   vofiiov  fori   ro'icri   Baj3v\tt)rioi(Ti  oCt'   hi 


'  Diodorus,  iv.  39. 
*  Diodorus,  v.  18. 


2  Mela,  i.  8. 

»  Civit.  Dei,  vi.  9. 


"  Melpomone,  iv.  172. 
«  Clio,  1.  199. 


i 


NOTES. 


305 


fjf)^Oijvai  iif^fH  ^lir^.  lloXXot  H  ^rai  uvk  alitufurai  iit'ttf^iiayiadm 
Ttjffi  a\\»;r't,  ola  TtXovTt^  vireixp^otinvtrtu,  Itti  ^tvyiwv  tv  Kafiuprj/rt 
tXutraffai,  TTpoi  ro  ipoy  laTiiai'  dipnirrjiq  ci  a<^i  oniaOtv  iTrtrai  ttoXA//. 
a'l  he  irXtvyeg  nouvai  <3t)£  *  iv  Ttijifti  ^A(ppocirri(;  Knriurai  trTt<f>riroi' 
irepi  rfjai  tctijtuXrjji  t^ovtrai  Owyutyyor,  TroWat  yvi'utKtg'  ai  p.iv  yap 
irpoaip\orTui,  nl  he  ii7rep-)(^ni'Tai'  a\oiv()TevieQ  he  ^u'sotot  iravra  rpuTTov 
iaaiCjv  iypvai  hia  tGjv  yvvaiKutv^  hi  up  o't  ^ilroi  cie^wrreQ  eKXfyoi'rai. 
et'Oa  iireaf  t^ijrat  ywri';,  ov  Trporepov  anaWuiraerai  eg  to.  oiua,  f/  r<c 
01  ^eivwv  apyvpiov  ifjiftaXtof  eg  to.  yovyuTU  fjux'^'i  '^"^  '''""  ip''^' 
ifjftaXoyra  he  heJ  tiTre'ir'  TOffot'he'  *  c'jraaXf'w  rot  Tt)v  Oeuv  MvXtrra*' 
MwXtrra  he  KaXiovtri  r»;»'  *A<l>puciTrjV  'AafTvpioi'  to  he  apyiipinv  i.iiya(iog 
Ian  vaovuiV  oh  yap  fit)  uiruiarqTai'  ov  yap  ol  Oifiig  eari'  yii'irui  yap 
Ipov  TovTO  TO  apyvptov'  ry  he  Trpwrw  e^iftaXovri  etreTui^  ovhe  anoho- 
Kifiqi  ovheva'  tKiav  he  fif)((irj,  UKoaiuKrafiti't}  Trj  0£«p  airaXXanffeTat  eg 
TO.  otKta,  Kat  TWTTC  TOVTOv  oitic  ovTU)  fiiyu  Ti  ol  hujaeig'  ijg  fiiy  Xafixpeai. 
oaai  fiev  vvv  e'iheog  re  ena^^ivai  ela\  Kat  fieyadfog,  Ta^v  avaXXatr- 
aoyrai'  oaai  he  ufiop^oi  avrnov  elirl,  yj^torov  ttoXXov  irpoa^ivovai 
ov  hwuftevai  Toy  tojioy  eKirXriaai'  KUi  yap  rpierea  Ka)  TeTpaerta 
peTe^erepai  yporoy ^erovai.  eyxt^rj  he  k(u  r>/C  Kvt^ou  trrrt  irapaTrXt'imtig 
Tovr^  yo^og. 


■ 


i^     i 


INDEX 


!        i 


INDEX. 


ABB 

ABBKOKUTA,  tattoos  of  tho  pooplo 
of,  13 
Abiponos,   their    disboliof    in    iialural 
d.'iith,  138 

—  sorcorors  amonpf  thom,  \^)^,  l/ii) 

—  their  worship  uf  tlic  Pleiudos,  215 

—  their  Shiimiinism,  225 

—  no  idea  among  them  of  creation,  250 

—  their  method  of  numeration,  21)8 
Ahyssinians,  absence  of  tho  marriage 

ceremony  among  the,  57 

—  practice  of  adoption  among  tbem,  GG 

—  th(!ir  stone-worship,  210 
Adoption,  prevalence  among  tlio  lower 

races  of  men,  65 

—  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  GG 

—  the  milk  tie,  66 

il'jthiopia,  marriage  customs  in,  87 
Africa,  customs  as  to  fathers-  and  mo- 
tliers-in-law,  9 

—  Mriting  used  as  medicine  in,  16,  17 

—  drawings  not  understood  in,  29,  30 

—  personal  ornamentation   of  various 
tribes,  42,  43 

—  their  tattoos  and  tribal  marks,  43,  45 

—  marriage  and  relationship  in,  51 

—  practice  of  adoption  in,  65 

—  marriage  customs  of  the  Futans,  82 
and  of  the  North  Africans,  83 

—  restrictions  on  marriage  in  Eastern 
and  Western  Africa,  95 

—  inheritance  through  females  in,  105 

—  how  dreams  are  regarded  by  somo 
tribes,  127 

—  their  notions  of  a  man's  shadow,  128 

—  and  of  the  Deity,  130 

—  behaviour     of    the     people    during 
eclipses,  136 

—  Totemism  in,  170-172,  174 

—  serpent-worship  in,  17G,  177 

—  auimal-worship  in.  178,  182 

—  tree-worship  in,  192 

—  water-worship  in,  201 

—  stone-worship  in,  210 

17 


AME 

AiVicx — continued. 

—  wursiiip  of  mm  in,  235 

—  Ceremony  of  eating  the  tVtieh  in,  241 

—  iuiman  sacrifices  in,  242 

—  no    notion   of  creation    among   the 
people  of,  252 

—  absence  of  moral  feeling  in,  264 

—  poverty  of  tlio  language  of,  21)3 

—  methods  of  numeration  in,  298,  290 

—  salutations  of  the  people  in,  300 
Age,  respect  paid  to,  272 

Ages,  the  Four,  true  theory  of,  352 
Agoyo,  an  idol  of  Whydah,  178 
Aiiitas   of  tho   PhillippiQcs,   marriage 

customs  of  the,  81 
Ahoosh,    Lake,    held    sacred    by    tho 

Bashkirs,  200 
Ahts,  inactivity  of  their  intellect,  5 

—  slavery  of  female   captives   among 
the,.  102 

—  their  sorcerers,  152 

—  their  worship  of  the  sun  and  moon, 
215 

Algonkins,  their  rules  and  ceremonies, 

305 
Alii  gator- worship,  183 
Amazon   Valley,  marriage  by  capture 

among  the  tribes  of  the,  79 
America,  South,  custom  of  La  Couvado 

in,  10,  11 
American  Indians,  customs  amonc  the. 

in  reference  to  mothers-in-law,  7 

—  custom  of  La  Couvado  among  tho, 
II 

—  their  ideas  with  reference  to   por- 
traits, 14,  15 

—  their  use  of  writing  as  medicine,  16 

—  their  mode  of  curing  diseases,  19 

—  thcii-  treatment  of  t>vins,  21 

—  their  picture-writings,  32-31,  36-39 

—  their  grave-posts,  35 

—  their  personal  ornamentation,  42 

—  marriage   and    relationship  among 
them,  50 


370 


INDEX. 


fi" 


AMB 

Amorifcin  IiulI.iMs     ronthniKf, 

—  iil)Hoii('o  of  rii:irriiit:(<  ccn'mony,  ^7 

—  HyMtcm  of  rcLiliuii.'^liijt  aiiioiig  nomo 
triliis,  (ij 

—  ciisfDm   ninMiipf   tin'    Uiitlsoti'M    I»ay 
linliiiiiN  ot'  w'osllii)).'  turn  witV,  (Hi 

—  iiiiirrifi;4t)  ciHtutiiHut' tlu;  South  Amo- 
rii'iuiH,  7'J 

■ —  rostrii'tioiiH  on  m.irriiif^o  among  Honu- 
of  tlirni,  97,  98 

—  iiiipoiluuci;  of  thfif  totcniH,  or  cTOstH, 
9H 

—  rt'lationship  tIiro\i;^h  fenmlcs  among 
tlii'in,  107 

—  Iiow  dn-anis  aro  rogardetl  Ly  tlium, 
rJ8 

—  tlioir  notion  of  a  man's  hIuuIow,  128 

—  and  of  a  J).-ity.  \W 

—  aliHonco    of    roligion    among    sorao 
tribes,  124 

—  HpiritH,  liow  ropardcd  l>y  sumo,  129 

—  liow  I  hoy  r('t,^iiril  (hath,  i;i;{ 

—  thoir  belief  in  u  plurality  of  eoiUs, 
Ml 

in  divination,  142 

• —  their  sorcery,  141,  14") 

—  their  fasting  and  supposed  revela- 
tions, li34 

—  their  religious  ideas,  101 

—  their  belief  in  fotiehos,  1G7 

—  their  toteniisin,  172,  173 

• —  thoir  worship  of  the  serpent,  179, 
180 

—  prevalence  of  animal  worship  among 
them,  180 

—  their  tree-worship,  19G 

—  their  water-worship,  2(!2,  203 

—  their  stone-worshii>,  210 

—  their  fire-worship,  210 

—  their  worship  of  the  sun  and  moon, 
213 

—  absence   of   idohitry   among  them, 
226 

—  their  sacrifiees,  239 

—  fearless  of  death,  2.')0 

—  their  ideas  of  creation,  2')1 

— ■  thoir  notion  of  a  future  state,  2G9 

—  their  languages,  279,  288 

—  thoir  property  in  land,  309 

—  names  taken  by  pareuts  from  their 
children,  316 

—  their  punishment  of  crime,  317 
Ancestors,  worship  of,  228,  232 
Andaman  Islamls,  relationship  between 

the  s<'xes  in  the,  60,  71 
Anglo-Saxons,  their  wergild,  321 
4.iiiiiial-worship  considered   as  a  stage 

of  religiii'js  progress,  171 


A  US 

Animal -worship — mnHnvfil, 

—  expIanalioiiH  of  the  aneients,  171 

—  arnon^^  the  ancirnf   ll^yptiaiis,  IH" 

—  eiisforn  of  apologising  to  an i nulls  for 
killing  them,  ISl 

Apis   re;.'iinled  by  thu  Egyi)tians  as  a 

go<l,  239 
Arabs,  tlmir  ideas  us  to  the  inlluenco  of 

foo<l,  13 

—  singular  marriage  of  the  Hassan veh, 

—  relations  of  husliand  and  wife,  rtfl 
" —  their  ancient  stone-worship,  208 

—  their  notions  of  a  broken  oath,  2(19 
Arawaks,  absence  of  the  marriag<'  core- 

numy  among  the,  ^)^ 
Arithmetic,   dilficultica  of  savages  iu, 
29.> 

—  use  of  the  fingers  in,  296,  299 
Armenia,  marriage  customs  iu,  87 
Art,  earliest  traces  of,  24 

—  in  the  Stone  Age,  2;') 

—  almost  absent  in  the  Bronze  Ago, 
2", 

—  as  an  ethnological  character,  28,  29 
Aryan  religions  contrasted  with  Semitic, 

219,  220 
Ashantoe,  king  of,  his  harem,  101 
Ashantees,   absence    of    the    marriage 

ceremony  among  the,  /iS 

—  their  water-worship,  200 

—  Assyrians,    their   human   sacrifices, 
212 

Atheism  defined,  119 

—  the  natural  condition  of  tho  savage 
mind,  123 

Australians,    Dampier's    mistake   with 
tiie,  33 

—  their  habit  of  non-contradiction,  4 

—  their  customs  as  to  fathers-  and  mo- 
thers-in-law, 9 

—  their  modes  of  curing  diseases,  19, 
20 

—  some  of  them  uuablo  to  understand 
a  drawing,  29 

—  their  personal  ornaments,  40 

—  nuirriage  among  them,  52 

—  condition  of  their  women,  52,  68 

—  their  practice  of  marriage  by  capture, 
73,74 

—  restrictions  on  marriage  among  thorn, 
95 

—  how  dreams  are  regarded  by  thera, 
127 

—  their  belief  in  an  evil  spirit,  132 

—  think  they  become  white  men  after 
death,  140 

—  their  religious  ideas,  158 


INDEX. 


371 


8  of  savages  in, 


311  of  th?  savago 

3    mistake   with 

iiitradiction,  4 
ithors-  and  mo- 

ng  diseases,  10, 

to  understand 


Among 


spirit,  132 
Lite  men  after 


Avn 

AnKfrnVn\r\n—flimfinui(f. 

—  Mrs.    ThDiuMon'a    rcsidtnco 
tlirm,  158 

—  thiir  totemism,  172 

—  liad  no  idea  of  cn-ation,  'i/il 

—  till  ir  absenoo  of  moral  fcilinp,  2fit 

—  no   notion   of    futuro   rewards    and 
punishments,  '2C)(i 

—  character  of  their  laws,  303 

—  their  salutationfl,  300 

—  thoir  property  in  land,  309 

—  division  of  proporty  into  portions, 
312 

—  their  custom  of  taking  the  names  of 
their  ohihlren,  31."} 

—  cuuditiou  of  women  among  thom,3f)3 


BAl^YLONIA,  marriago  customs  in, 
H7 
liachapins,  their  religious  ideas,  101 
£ah>aric  Islands,  marriago  customs  in 

tlie,  88 
Bali,  fancies  of  tho  natives  of,  respecting 
twins,  20 

—  practice  of  marriago  hy  capture  in,  74 
Bamboo,  the,  worsliipped,  194 
Basutos,  system  of  primogeniture  of  the, 

316 
Battas  of  Sumatra,  relationship  through 

females  among  the,  106 
Bear,  worship  of  the,  182 
Beam,  custom  of  La  Couvado  in,  9,  10 
Bechuanas,  their  ideas  regarding  evil 

spirits,  129,  134 

—  their  notions  of  the  causes  of  death, 
133 

—  their  totemism,  174 

Bedouins,  absence  of  religion  among  the 
wilder,  123 

—  their  mode  of  divination,  142 
Bells,  use  of,  by  tho  Buddhists,  135 

—  and  by  tho  Japanese,  1  'Aft 
Berbers,   their  custom  of   inheritance 

through  females,  105 
Bintang   Islanders,    absence   of    moral 

sense  among  the,  268 
Bird-worship,  184 
Bo  tree,  worship  of  the,  in  India  and 

Ceylon,  193 
Borneo,  condition  of  the  wild  men  of 

tho  interior  of,  5,  6 

—  customs  as  to  mothers-in-law,  9 

—  and  of  La  Couvade,  1 1 
Bornouese,  Lribe  marks  of  tho,  4  i 
Bouriats,  their  sacred  lakes,  199 
Brazilians,  their  custom  of  killing  and 

eating  captives,  89 


an 

BrazilianH-  -routinui'il. 

—  their  niarriagi' rt'jrulati<ins,  99 

—  their  notion  of  evil  spirits,  130 

—  Horeerers  among  them,  1  ')3 
Itritnns,  postobits  amont;  thi>,  2(8 
Brumer    l>laiid,    tattooing    among  tho 

women  of,  44 
Bunns  of  Africa,  tribal  marks  of  the, 

43 
Bushmen,     Lichtenstein'u    description 

of  the,  qiiotwl,  6 

—  their  customs  as   to    fathers-  and 
mothers-in-law,  9 

—  unable  to  understand  persj   ctive,  30 

—  absence  of  the  marriage  coromony 
among  them,  rtH.  00 

—  their  notions  of  ghosts,  140 

CAL1F0R\TAN?5.  absenee  of  religion 
and  goveniin<nt  among  the,  123 

—  their   beli'f  in    tlie  destruction  of 
bi)(ly  and  spirit,  MO 

—  tlieir  religious  ideas,  100 

—  absence  of  ideas  rospociing  creation, 
250 

Ciimbodians,  thoir  low  ideas  regarding 
spirits,  135 

—  thoir  notion  of  eclipsi'S,  137 
Caribs,  thoir  ideas  respecting  tho  influ- 
ence of  food,  13 

—  their  practice  of  maiTiage  by  cap- 
ture, 73 

—  their  bi-haviour  during  eclipses,  137 

—  their  belief  in  the  plurality  of  souls, 
141 

—  their  fasting  and  supposed  revela- 
tions, 155 

—  their  notion  of  tho  Deity,  264 
Caroline  Islander,  tattooing  of  a,  46 
Carthaginians,  -their  human  sacritlccs, 

242 
Celts,  their  tree-worship,  196 
Census  roll,  an  American  Indian,  22 
Ceylon,  two  kinds  of  marriage  in,  64 

—  polyandry  in,  101 

—  religious  ideas  of  the  Veddahs  of, 
159 

—  tree-worship  in,  193 

the  sacred  Bo  tree,  193 

Cheek  studs,  42 

Cherokees,  divination  practised  by  the, 
141 

—  their  practice  of  fasting,  154 

—  their  progress  in  civilisation,  332 
Chinese,  their  customs  as  to  daughters- 
in-law,  8 

—  their  custom  of  La  Couvade,  11 


I 


a72 


INDEX. 


<     r 


CHI 

Chineso — contimicd. 

—  thoir  notions  as  to  the  infiuunco  of 
food,  13 

—  thoir  mode  of  salutation,  24 

—  their  presents  of  coflins,  21 

—  thoir  delicioncy  in  the  art  of  perspec- 
tive, 30 

—  their  knots  for  transacting  business, 
31 

—  their  compression  of  ladies'  feet,  48 

—  their  marriage  customs,  60 

—  restrictiona    on    marriage    amongst 
them,  97 

—  notions  of  the  people  of  Kiatka  with 
reference  to  eclipses,  137 

—  their  idea  of  the  man  in  the  moon, 
138 

—  witchcraft  of   the    magicians,    1 18, 
149 

—  their  fetiches,  1G8 

—  life  attributed  by  them  to  iniinlmiito 
objects,  190 

- —  their  idolatry,  227 

—  their  language,  280 
Chipewj'ans,  their  idea  of  creation,  2.51 
Chiquito  Indians,  their  beliaviour  dur- 
ing eclipses,  137 

Chittagong,   marriage  among   the  hill 

tribes  of,  51,  66 
Circassians,  the  milk  tie  among  them, 

66 

—  marriage  by  force  among  them,  83 

—  exogamy  among  them,  96 
Coffins,  presents  of,  24 
Comanches,  their  worship  of  the  sun, 

moon,  and  earth,  215 

—  absence  of  moral  feeling  among  the, 
264 

Communal  marriage,  62,  66,  70 
Coroados,  custom  of  La  Couvadc  among 

the,  10 
Coroados,   personal    ornaments    of    a 

woman,  41 

—  their  worship  of  the  sun  and  moon, 
215 

—  their  method  of  numeration,  298 
Courtesans,  respect  paid  in  Greece  to, 

90 

—  their  religious   character  in  India, 
91 

Couvade,  La,  custom  of,  in  Bcarn,  10 

—  its  wide  distribution,  10,  11 

—  origin  of  the  custom,  1 2 
Creation,  no  idea  of,  among  the  lower 

races,  250 
Crocodile -worship,  171,  184 


FAM 


DACOTAIIS,  their  notiona  us  to  the 
influence  of  food,  13 

—  thfir  water-god,  Uuktaho,  202 

—  their  stone-worship,  210 
Dahomey,  king  of,  his  messengers  to  his 

deceased  father,  249 
Dampier,  his  mistake  with  Australians, 

3 
Dances,  religious,  among  savages,  155, 

359 

—  a  dance  among  the  Redskins  of  Vir- 
ginia, 244 

Death,  disbiliof  among  savages  in  the 

existence  of  natural,  132,  133 
Decan,  tattooing  of  the  women  of,  44 
Deification,  savage  tendency  to,  188 
Dekkan,  sacred  ntunes  in  the,  206,  2 14 
Disease,  how  regarded  by  savages,  17 
--  various  modes  of  curing,  18 

—  cauo  s  of,  according  to  the  KaiBrs, 
163 

Divination  among  savage  races,  141 

—  modes  of,  described,  141-143 
Doingnaks,  endogamy  of  the,  103 
Dreams,  religious  ideas  suggested  by, 

126 
Dyaks  of  Borneo,  custom  of  La  Couvade 
among  the,  1 1 

—  their  ideas  respecting  the  influence 
of  food,  13 


EAR  ornaments,  42 
Eclipses,    behaviour    of    s;;vag<+- 
during,  136,  137 
Endogamy,  origin  of,  102 
England,  water- worship  in,  198 

—  worship  of  stones  in,  209 
Esquimaux,   their  attempts   to  render 

barren  women  fertile,  14 

—  their  mode  of  curing  diseases,  19 

—  their  mode  of  salutation,  24 

—  their  skill  in  drawing,  26,  27 

—  their  picture-writings,  3'^ 

—  their  personal  ornamenti.tion,  42 

—  their  habit  of  licking  presents,  GO 

—  their  capture  of  i^rides,  78 

—  their  Sliamanism,  223 

—  their  language,  279 

—  Capt.  Parry's  picture  of  a  hut  of  the 
343 

Eyebright,  the,   used   for  ocular  com 

plaints,  13 
Exogamy,  or  marriage  out  of  a  tribe,  9 


I7AMILIA,  the, 
68 


of  the  Romans,  52 


INDEX. 


373 


IT    of    Siivamf- 


d 


FAS 

Fastl^'g  practised  by  savapos,  loS 
l^'cjooaus,   tlioir  custom  of  Vuau,  108, 

—  tlioir  tattooing,  45 

—  tluir  hair-drossinjx,  48 

—  their  polyandry,  55 

—  their  marriage  customs,  50 

—  their  marriage  by  capture,  79 

—  their  mode  of  sorcery,  114,  145,  147 

—  their  serpent-worship,  179 

—  and  worship  of  other  animals,  182 

—  their  worship  of  plants,  196 

—  their  stone-worship,  210 

—  their  Shamanism,  221 

—  their  offerings  of  food  to  the  gods, 
238 

—  their  notions  of  a  future  state,  24G 

—  their  practice  of  putting  old  people 
to  death,  248 

—  names  and  character  of  their  gods, 
2(56 

—  have  no  notion  of  future  rewards  and 
punishments,  267 

—  their  ceremonies,  308 
I'elatah  ladies,  toilet  of,  42 
Fetichism,  defined,  119 

—  considered   as   a  stage  of  religious 
progress,  164 

—  belief  of  the  negroes  in,  165 

—  believed  in  Europe  and    in    other 
races,  165-167 

—  eating  the  fetich,  169,  241 
Fire-worship,  212 

Flatheads  of  Oregon,  their  fasts   and 

supposed  revelations,  154 
Formosa,  tiittooing  in,  44 
France,  worship  of  st.mes  in,  209 
Friendly  Islanders,  their  explanations 

to  Labillardi6re,  3 
- —  their  treachery,  257 
Fricsland,  marriage  by  force  in,  83 
Futans,  marriage  customs  of  the,  82 
Future    life,   absence   of    belief    in   a, 

among  savages,  139 


GALACTOPITAGI,   communal    mar- 
riage of  the,  65 
Gambler  Islands,  taluoing  in  the,  45 
Gangamma,   or    rivers   worshipped    in 

India,  200 
Ganges,  worship  of  the,  200 
Germans,   ancient,  relationship  umong 

the,  108 
Ghosts,  belief  of  savages  in,  138,  140, 

1-ix 

—  difference  in  the  belief  in  ghosts  and 
in  the  existence  of  a  soul,  215 


IIUR 

Goguet,  on  property.  308 

—  on  laws,  300 

Goose,  the,  worshipped,  183 
Grave-posts  (if  American  Indians,  33 
Greeks,  their  marriage  custoins,  iS7 

—  their  notions  respecting  their  deities, 
136 

—  their  water-worship,  199 

—  their  stone-worship,  208 

—  origin  of  their  myths,  220,  221 

—  character  of  their  pods,  266 

—  their  power  of  willing  property,  312 
Grecnhindera,  their  custom  of  La  Cou- 

vade,  11 

—  their  notions  respecting  dreams,  126 

—  their  behaviour  during  eclipses,  136 

—  fasting  and  sorcery  among  them.  153 

—  seizure  of    property  after  a  man's 
death,  311 

Gruaich-stoncs  in  Skyo,  210 

Guam,  endogamy  in,  103 

Guiana,  custom  of  La  Couvade  in,  10 


-  restrictions  on  marr;age 
98 


among  ti'c. 


—  native  method  of  numeration,  297 
Guinea,  New,  tattooing  among  the  wo- 
men cf,  44 

Guinea,  tattooing  m.  44 

—  human  sacritioes  at,  242 
Guyacurus    of    Paraguay,    matrimony 

among  the,  51 


TTAm-DIlESSING  of  the  Fcejecans, 

Hawaii,  system  of  relationship  in, 
01-64 

—  low  ideas  of  the  natives  respecting 
spirits,  134 

Head,  compression  of  the,  among  soma 

American  tribes,  48 
Heaven,  ideas  of,  among  the  lower  races, 

247 
Heliogabalus,  form  of  the  god,  208 
Hermes,  or  Termcs,  worship  of  stones 

under  the  name  of,  205,  208 
Hottentots,  marriage  among  the,  60 

—  their  evil  spirits,  129 

—  their  notion  of  prayer,  253 

—  but  no  idea  of  future  rewards  and 
punishments,  268 

Hudson's  Bay  Indians,  relationship 
through  females  among  the,  107 

Hunting  laws  of  savages,  305 

Hurons,  system  of  relationship  among 
the,  110-112 


374 


INDEX. 


[ 


lu^< 


IDO 


IDOLATRY,    or    anthropomorphism, 
119 

—  considered  as  a  stage  of  religious 
development,  225 

—  unknown  to  tlio  lower  races,  226,  227 

—  origin  of,  228 

—  Solomon  on  idols.  230 

--  idols  not  regarded  as  more  emblems, 

231 
India,  absence  of  the  marriage  ceremony 

Among  some  tribes  in,  67 

—  marriage  customs  among  others,  7<>, 
70,  88 

—  respect  paid  to  courtesans  at  Vesali, 
90,  91 

—  restrictions  on   marriage  in   some 
races,  95,  96 

—  polyandry  in,  101 

—  endogamy,  102 

sorcery  of  the  mf  gicians  of,  1 15 

—  witchcraft  in,  149 

—  religious  dances  in,  157 

—  Fetichism  in,  165-167 

—  animal- worship  in,  183 

—  inanimate  objects  worsliippcd  in,  191 

—  tree-worship  in,  193,  104 

—  water-worship  in,  200 
— -  stone-worship  in,  206 

—  worship  of  the  sun  in,  215 

—  various  other  worships  in,  217 

—  idolatry  in,  227 

—  worship  of  ancestors  in,  228 

—  human  sacrifices  in,  240,  242 

—  notions  of  future  rewards  ani  pun- 
ishment among  various  races  of,  26S 

—  salutations  and  ceremonies  in,  307 

—  rights  of  children  in,  314 

—  primogeniture  in,  317 
Infanticide,  causes  of,  among  savages, 93 
Inheritance,  custom  of,  through  females, 

105 
Ireland,  water-worship  in,  199 

—  stone-worship  in,  209 

Iroquois,  system  of  relationship  among 

the,  110-112 
Italy,  marriage  custom  in,  87 


JAKUTS,   restrictions    on    marriage 
among  the,  97 

—  their  worship  of  animals,  182 

—  their  worship  of  trees,  194 
Jews,  relationship  among  the,  108 
— ,  sacrifices  among  the,  237,  243 


KAFFIRS,  unable  to  understand  draw- 
ings, 30 


skin 


the 


KOL 

Kaffirs — con  t  in  ucd. 

—  ornamentation  of  tho 
Bachiipins,  43 

—  marriage  among  the.  50 

—  remarks  of  tho  chief  Scscka  to  Mr. 
Arbroussot,  114 

—  absence    of    religion    among    the 
Koussas,  123 

—  ..  Zulu's  notions  of  religion,  125 

—  disease  attributed  by  the  Koussas  to 
tliree  causes,  132 

—  their  notion  of  tho  causes  of  death, 
I3:i 

—  and  of  evil  spirits,  135 

—  religious  ideas,  161,  162 

—  curious    hunting    custom    of   the 
Koussas,  185 

—  their  worship  of  ancestors,  229 

—  their  notions  of  creation,  251 

—  absence  of  moral  feeling  among  tho, 
264 

—  their  method  of  numeration,  298,  299 
Kalangs  of  Java,  restrictions  on  mar- 
riage among  the,  103 

Kaln]ack3,  marriage  ceremonies  of  the, 
i'7 

—  restrictions  on  marriage  among  the, 
96 

—  their  character,  256 
Kamchadales,    marriage    by    capture 

among  the,  77 

—  their  low  ideas  of  spirits,  134 
Kamskatka,  custom  of  La  Couvade  in, 

11 
Kenaiyers,    restrictions    on    marriage 
among  the,  97 

—  relationship  throuj^Ii  females  among 
the,  107 

Khasias   of  Hindostan,   their   fancies 

respecting  twins,  21 
Konds  of   Orissa,  marriage    customs 

among  the,  75 

—  restrictions  on  marriage  among  thc^ 
96 

—  their  totemism,  173 

—  their  water-worship,  200 

—  and  stone-worship,  206 

—  their  worship  of  the  sun  and  moon, 
216 

—  human  sacrifices  among  them,  240 
Ivirghiz,  sacrifices  among  the,  238 
Kissing,  not  universally  practised,  24 
Knots  used  as  records,  31 

Kols  of  Central  India,  marriage  cerfc> 
monies  of  the,  7v5 

—  their  belief  in  an  evil  geniu%  133 

—  their  religious  dances,  156 

—  their  totemism,  173 


I 


INDEX. 


876 


tho  skia  of  the 

1.  50 

f  Scseka  to  Mr. 

ion    among    the 

•eligion,  125 
y  tho  Koussas  to 

causes  of  death, 

3d 
162 
custom   of   tho 

sstors,  229 

ion,  251 

ling  among  the^ 

ration,  298,  299 
Jtiona  on  mar- 

3monies  of  the, 

ige  among  the, 


>    "by    capture 

its,  134 
Couvade  in, 

on    marriage 

emales  among 

their  fancies 

age    customs 

;e  among  thc^ 

0 

m  and  moon, 

:  them,  240 
he,  238 
actised,  24 

irriage  cert* 

>niufl^  133 
55 


KOO 


i 


Kookies  of  Chittap;ong,  havo  no  notion 
of  future  rewards  and  punishments, 
2G8 


I'  ABRETS    of   tho    Americans    and 
J    Africans,  42 
Lake-worship,  19y-201 
Lama,  Great,  of  Thibet,  worship  of  tho, 

236 
Land,  property  in,  among  savages,  308 

—  communal  property,  310 
LanjTuage,  figurative,  of  savages,  191 

—  the  language  of  the  lowest  races,  275 

—  gesture  language,  276,  277 

—  origin  of  languages,  277 

—  root-words,  280 

—  onomatopoeia,  281 

—  abstract  names,  282 

—  nicknames  and  slang  terms,  283 

—  origin  of  tho   terms    '  father '    and 
•mother,'  283 

—  choice  of  root-words,  289 

—  poverty  of  savage  languages,  291- 
298 

—  table  of  seventeen  languages,  357 
Laplanders,  their  ideas  with  reference 

to  portraits,  15 
• —  their  mode  of  divination,  142 
7-  fasting  of  wizards  among  the,  155 
Law,  connection  of,  with  right,  269 
Laws  of  the  lower  races,  300 

—  character  of  their  laws,  302 

—  their  multiplicity,  304 

—  their  rules  and  ceremonies,  305 

—  hunting  laws,  305 

—  salutations,  306 

—  property  in  land,  308 

—  land  tenures,  311 

—  wills,  312 

—  punishment  of  crime,  318 
Letters,  bark,  of  the  American  Indians, 

37,  38 
lacking  presents,  habit  of,  66 
Life,  how  regarded  by  savages,  20 
Limboos,     customs     of     relationship 

among  the,  106 
Lycians,  relationship  through  females 

among  the,  106 


MADAGASCyVE,    religious     regard 
paid  to  dreams  in,  126 

—  animals  worshipped  in,  184 

—  absence  of  temples  in,  243 
M'Lennan  on  marriage,  vii.  57-60,  et  scq. 
Maine,  Mr.,  remarks   on  his  '  Ancient 

Law,  2 


MEX 

Mai  no — conthi  iied. 

—  on  wills,  311 

Malays,  their  ideas  re.spocling  tho  iu' 
fluence  of  food,  12 

—  their  marriage  ceremonies,  76 

—  Mr.  AVallaeo'.s  [lieturu    of  a  savago 
community,  262 

—  their  method  of  numeration,  298 
Mammoth,  ancient  drawing  of  a,  25 
Mandans,  their  water-worsiiip,  203 
Mandingocs,  marriiigo  among  the,  61 

—  absence  of  marriage  ceremony  among 
the,  58 

—  custom  at  marriage,  69 

—  marriage  by  force  among  the,  82 

—  animal-worship  among  the,  186 

—  their  notion  of  prayer,  253 
Mantchu  Tartars,  restrictions  on  mar- 
riages among  tho,  103 

Maoris,  their  worship  of  animals,  182 
Marriage  among  savages,  50 

—  ditferent  kinds  of,  53,  54 

—  provisional  marriages  in  Ceylon,  54 

—  absence  of  marriage  ceremony,  57 
and  of  any  woitl  for  m    "iage,  58 

—  distinction      between      'lt>.jk.'      and 
'  brittle '  marriages,  59 

—  gradual  development  of  the  custom 
of  marriage,  60 

communal  marriage,  60,  67 

Eachofen's  views,  67-69 

marriage    with    female    supre- 
macy, 67 

wrestling  for  wives,  69 

M'Lennan's  views,  69 

—  —  the  true  explanation,  70,  71 
tho  prevalence  of  marriage  by 

capture,  72 
■■ —  which  becomes  subsequently 

a  form,  75 
custom  of  lifting  the  bride  over 

the  doorstep,  84 

marriage  by  confarreatio,  85 

expiation  for  marriage  in  various 

countries,  86,  364 

temporary  wives,  89-91 

exogamy  and  its  origin,  92 

restrictions     against     marrying 

women  of  the  same  stock,  94 
endogamy,  102 

—  marriage  with  half-sisters,  108 
Mercury,  his  offices,  201,  205 
Mexicans,  animal  worship  among  the, 

181  _ 

—  their  trco-worship,  196 

—  their  water-worship,  203 

—  their  fire-worship,  214 

—  their  human  sacrifices,  239,  240,  243 


;]7G 


INDEX. 


I'lJ  ii 


i^i 


MIL 

Milk  tio,  the,  in  Circassia,  06 

—  strength  of  the  rolationsliip  among 
tho  Scotch  Highlanders,  lOi 

IVIoiigols,  marriage  customs  of  tho,  78 

—  tluir  mode  of  divination,  142 

—  their  laws,  304 
Moon,  worship  of  tho,  214 
Moral  feeling,  origin  of,  270 

—  connection  of  religion  and  morality, 
273 

Mothers-in-law,   customs   in   reference 
to,  7 


NAIRS  of  India,  relationship  among 
the,  60 

—  relationship  through  females  among 
the,  106 

Naples,  fetichism  in,  255 
Natchez,  their  stone-worship,  210 

—  their  fire-worship,  214,  215 
Nature-worship  defined,  119 
Naudowessies,    custom     of    polyandiy 

among  the,  88 
Negroes,  inactivity  of  their  intellect,  5 

—  their  notion  of  evil  spirits,  130,  131 

—  their  belief  in  ghosts,  138 

• —  their  absence  of  belief  in  a  future 
life,  139 

—  become    white    men    after    death, 
140 

—  their  mode  of  divination,  142 

—  their  sorcery,  144 

—  their  beli'  f  in  fetichism,  164 

—  their  tree-worship,  192,  193 

—  their  worship  of  tho  sea,  200 

—  and  of  white  men,  masts,  and  pumps, 
202 

—  their  moon-worship,  216 

—  and  worship  of  an  iron  bar,  217 

—  Shamanism  among  them,  225 

—  have  no  notion  of  creation,  252 

—  nor  of  prayer  to  tho  Deity,  253 

—  absence  of  moral  feeling  among  the, 
264 

—  their  ealutati-'us,  306 
Nicaragua,  rain-worship  in,  203 
Nicknames,  origin  of,  283 

Nicobar  Islands,  ideas  of  the  natives  of, 

of  spirits,  134 
Numerals,  savage  names  of,  296.  297 
Nyambanas,  ornamentation  of  tbo  skin 

of  the,  43 


OJIBWAS,  their  fire-worship,  214 
Omahaws,  their  customs  respecting 
*mns-in-law,  7 


QUI 


Ornaments,  personal,  of  savagoB,  40 
Ostiaks,  their  customs  as  to  daughters 
in-law,  8 

—  exogamy  among  them,  96 

—  their  religious  dances,  157 

—  their  fetiches,  169 

—  their  tree-worsliip,  194 

—  and  stone-worship,  206 

—  their    statues    in    memory 
dead,  229 

Ox,  the,   held    sacred    in    India 
Ceylon,  183 


of   the 


and 


PARAGUAY,  sea-worship  in,  204 
Parents,  custom  of  naming  them 
after  children,  316 
Patagonians,  their  tree-worship,  196 
Petition,  an  American  Indian,  39 
Peruvians,    their    mode    of    recording 
events,  31 

—  their  notions  of  eclipses,  137 

—  their  animal  worship,  181 

—  their  sea-worship,  20 1 

—  their  fire-worship,  214 

—  their  notion  of  religion  and  morals, 
268,  209 

Phillippino  Islands,  worship  of  trees  in 

the,  195 
Phoenicians,  their  stone-worship,  208 
Picture-writing,  31,  32 
Pleiades,  worship  of  the,  21 
Polyandry,  reasons  for,  55 

—  causes  of,  100 

—  list  of  tribes  regarded  as  polyandrous, 
100 

—  considered  as  an  exceptional  pheno- 
menon, 100,  101 

—  widely  distributed  over  India,  Thibet, 
and  Ceylon,  101 

Polygamy,  causes  of,  99,  100 
Polyrvsians,    relationship   through   fe- 
xnalea  in,  107 

—  their  drawings,  26 

—  polyandry  among  them,  101 

—  their  powers  of  witchcraft,  152 

—  animal-worship  among  them,  181 

—  tlieir  worship  of  men,  235 

—  tin  ir  method  of  numeration,  298 

—  their  property  in  land,  310 

—  their  laws,  320 
Pond-worship,  201 

Priests,  absence   of,  among   the  lower 
races,  244 


Q 


UIPPU,  tho,  of  the  Peruvians,  31 


INDEX. 


37' 


RAI 


as  to  diiii-htfrs- 

'm,  9G 
is,  157 

91 
206 
memory    of   tlie 

in    India    and 


■ship  in,  204 
f  naming  tlicm 

ivorsliip,  19G 

idian,  39 

>    of    recording 

3es,  137 

,  181 

4 

I 

on  and  morals, 

"hip  of  trees  in 

worship,  208    . 

21 
5 

s  polyandrous, 
Jtional  pheno- 
India,  Thibet, 

00 

throufrh   fe- 


,  101 

aft,  152 
tliem,  181 
!35 

ition,  298 
310 


g   the  lower 


avians,  31 


pAINBOW,  worship  of  the,  217 

J-ii     Eain-worship,  203 

Roddies  of  Southern  India,   marriage 

customs  of  the,  54 
Reindeer,  ancient  drawing  of  a,  25,  2G 
Rehitionship  among  savages,  50 
Relationships  independent  of  marriage, 

61 

—  adoption,  65 

—  the  milk-tie,  66 

—  change  in  tho  relationship  fcmalo 
to  the  male  line,  109,  110 

—  eysttm  of  kinship  of  the  Iroquois 
and  lluron  Indians,  110-112 

—  through  females,  105 
males,  110 

—  present  system,  113 
Religion  of  savages,  114 

—  their  mental  inactivity,  115 

—  character  of  their  religion,  116 

—  classification  of  the  lower  religions, 
119 

—  sequence  of  religions   according  to 
Sanchoniatho,  119 

—  religious     londition    of   tho   lowest 
races,  121 

—  tribes  among  whom  religion  is  absent, 
122 

—  rudimentary  religion,  125 
dreams,  126 

• a  man's  shadow,  128 

spirits  at  first  regarded  as  evil, 

129 

and  causing  disease,  131 

low  ideas  of  spirits  entertained 

by  savages,  134 
• belief  in  gliosts,  138 

—  —  absence  of  belief  in  a  future  state, 
139 

plurality  of  souls,  141 

divination  and  sorcery,  141-147 

witchcraft,  148 

religious  dances,  155 

—  gradual    development    of    religious 
ideas,  158-163 

fetichism,  164 

totemism,  169 

animal  worship,  171 

deification  of  inanimate  objects, 

187 

tree-worship,  191 

water- worship,  198 

■ worship  of  stones  and  mountains, 

204 

—  —  fire-worship,  212 

•—  —  worship  of  the  sun,  moon,  and 
stars,  214 

—  —  sundry  other  wcrehips,  216,  217 


SAV 

R<4igion  of  Savages — co7)tiiiiifcl. 

developmental   and  adaptatiouaJ 

changes,  219 

Sliamanism,  222 

idolatry,  225 

worship  of  ancestors  and  of  men 

232,  233 
worship  of  principles,  237 

—  —  sacrifices,  237,  238 

temples,  243 

the  soul,  245-248 

tho  futui'o  state,  249 

creation,  250 

prayer,  253 

the  nature  of  idols,  255 

—  —  connection  of  religion  and  mo- 
rality, 273 

—  progress  of  religious  ideas  among 
savages,  348,  349 

Right,  connection  of,  with  law,  2G9 
River-worship,  201 
l^ock  sculptures,  40 

—  of  Western  Europe,  40 

Romans,  their  notiuna  "ospecting  their 
deities,  136 

—  sorcery  among  them,  146 

—  origin  of  their  myths,  221 

—  their  wills,  313 

—  their  laws  of  property,  319 

—  property  in  laud  in,  310 


SAB.^illSM,  187 
Sacrifices,  human,  237-242 

—  confusion  of  tho  victim  with  the 
Deity,  239 

—  in  ancient  times,  242 
Salutation,  forms  oi,  >imong  savages 

23,24 
Samoyedes,  marriage  among  tho,  52 

—  marriage  by  capture  among  the,  78 

—  exogamy  among  the,  96 
Sanchoniatho,  sequence  of  religions  ac 

cording  to,  119 
Sandwich  Islander,  tattooing  of  a,  40 

—  relationship  among  the,  60,  61 

—  endogamy  among  them,  103 

—  their  animal  worship,  181 
Savages,  their  reasons  for  what  they  do 

and  believe,  3 

—  difficulties  of  communicating  witli 
them,  and  consequent  mistakes,  3 

—  inactivity  of  their  intellect,  4 

—  condition  of  tJie  lowest  races  of  men, 
6-7 

—  resemblance  of  different  races  in 
similar  stages  of  develc>pment  to  on© 
another,  7 


l.;-'s  111 


[<s 


378  INDEX. 

SAV 

Saviigos — contin  ned. 

—  wido  distributi(jn  of   the  custom  of 
La  Couvtido,  10,  11 

—  ideas  on  the  infhicncc  of  food,  12 

—  their  notions  with  reference  to  por- 
traits, 14 

—  and  as  to  tho  value  of  writing,  IG,  17 

—  their  ideas  of  disease,  17 

—  tlieir  fancies  respecting  twins,  21 

—  how  life  is  regarded  by  them,  22 

—  their  forms  of  salutation,  23 

—  art  among  them,  24 

—  their  personal  ornaments,  40 

—  marriago    and    relationship    among 
tliem,  60  et  scq. 

—  their  religion,  114  ei  seq. 

—  their  figurative  language,  191 

—  their   character  and  morals,   257 
difficulty  of  ascertaining  tho  cha- 
racter of  savage  races,  260,  261 

their  progress  in  morals,  262 

their  family  affection  and  moral 

feeling,  263 
have  no  notion  of  a  future  state, 

2G6     _ 
origin  of  moral  feeling,  270 

—  languagH  of  tho  lowest  races,  273 

—  their  laws,  300 

—  true  nature  of  barbarism,  340 

—  general  conclusions  respecting  savago 
races,  323 

—  papers  on  the  primitive  condition  of 
man,  325,  337 

S3ience,  services  of,  to  the  cause  of  re- 
ligion and  humanity,  256 
Scotland,  water- worship  in,  198 

—  stone-worship  in  Skye,  210 
Scythians,  their  worship  of  a  scimctar, 

216 
Sea,  worship  of  the,  200,  204 
Semitic  religions  contrasted  with  Aryan, 

219,  220 
Serpent,  worship  of  the,  174 

—  races  in  which  the  serpent  was  and 
is  worshipped,  176 

Shadow,  how  regarded  by  savages,  128, 

163 
Sliamanism  defined,  119 

—  origin  of  the  word  Shaman,  222 

—  account  of,  222 
Shamans  of  Siberia,  their  supernatural 

powers,  152 
Siberia,  stone-worship  in,  206 

—  worship  of  ancestors  in,  229 

—  notions  of  tho  people  of,  as  to  Crea- 
tion, 251 

Bio'jc,   system   of  relationship   among 
the,  65 


during 


TAC 

Skin,  ornamentation  of  tho,  43 
Skyo,  worship  of  stones  in,  210 
Slang  terms,  origin  of,  2S3 
Smoking  in  religious  ceremonies,  157 
Snakes,  departed  rclativos  ii  the  foi'/n 

of,  163 
Sneezing,  custom  at,  336 
Son!  hals,  marriago  customs  of  the,  88 

—  their  religious   observaucea 
intoxication,  157 

—  their  mode  of  praying  for  rain,  208 
Scors,  absence  of  moral  sense  am(jiig 

tho,  265 
Sorcery  among  savages,  143,  144 

—  various  modes  of,  144-147 

—  sorcerers  not  necessarily  impostors, 
152 

Soul,  difference  hotwoen  tho  belief  in 
ghosts  and  in  tho  existence  of  a  soul, 
245 

—  souls  of  inanimate  objects,  246 

—  belief  that  each  man  has  several 
souls,  247 

South  Sea  Islanders,  their  religion,  117 
Spartans,  their  marriages  by  capture, 

83 
Spiders  worshipped,  182 
Spirits,  always  regarded,  by  savages  aa 

evil,  129 

—  the  authors  of  diseases,  ISl 
Stars,  worship  of  the,  214 
Statues,    worshipped    as  deities,    229, 

230  • 
Stiens  of  Cambodia,  their  belief  in  an 
evil  genius,  132 

—  their  behaviour  during  eclipses,  137 

—  their  animal-worship,  186 

—  absence  of  temples  among  the,  243 
Stones,  worship  of,  204 
Sumatrans,   three    kinds  of    marriage 

among  the,  53,  54 

—  sorcery  among  them,  146 

—  their  behaviour  during  an  eclipse, 
136_ 

—  their  animal-worship,  186 

—  their  tree-worship,  195 

—  their  water-worship,  200 

—  their  notion  of  a  future  state,  267 

—  their  names  taken  from  their  chil- 
dren, 316 

Sun,  the,  worshipped  by  the  Peruvians, 
181 

—  original  form  of  sun-worship,  187 

—  worship  of  the,  214 
Swords,  worship  of,  216,  217 

TACITUS,  his  observations  on  the  an 
cient  GermanSj  2 


INDEX. 


370 


0.48 
I,  210 
;j 

nonios,  ITtJ 
i   11  the  foi'jTk 


IS  of  tlio,  88 
aucea  duriiij; 

for  rain,  208 

SC'USO     UIIKJIIg 

13,  144 

147 

]y  impostors, 

tho  belief  in 
nee  of  a  soul, 

cts,  246 
has   several 

religion,  117 
by  capture, 


ly  savages  as 
ISl 

eitios,  229, 
belief  in  an 
^clipsos,  137 
kg  the,  243 


ff   marriage 


Ian   eclipse, 

lato,  267 
1  their  chil- 

I  Peruvians, 

lip,  187 

Ion  the  aa 


TAII 

Tahiti,  maiTiape  customs  in,  58,  59 

—  unimal-worHhip  in,  181 

—  worship  of  the  king  and  queen  of, 
233 

—  uljsonce  of  ideas  as  to  creation  in, 
253 

—  character  of  tho  natives,  257,  260 

—  ciiaracter  of  the  laws  of,  303 

—  and  of  tho  ceremonies  of,  307 

—  property  in  land  in,  310 

—  property  left  by  will  in,  313 

—  custom  of  abdication  of  tho  king  of, 
315 

—  stone-worship  in,  210 

—  notions  of  the  people  as  to  future 
rewards  and  punishments,  206 

Tamils,  system  of  relationship  among 

the.  111,  112 
Tauna,  tattooing  among  the  women  of, 

44 
Tapyrians,  marriage  custom  of  ihe,  89 
Tartars,  their  notion  of  God,  135 

—  inheritance    in    the    youngest    son 
among  the,  316 

Tattooing,  among  tho  Africans,  43,  44 

—  among  other  races,  44-47 
Teehurs  of  Oude,  relationship  of  tho 

sexes  among  the,  60 
Teeth  filed,  42 

—  pierced  and  ornamented,  42,  43 
Temples,  unknown  mostly  to  the  lower 

races,  243 
Thibet,  polyai^dry  in,  101 
Thomson,  Mrs.,  worshipped  as  a  deity 

in  Australia,  235 
Thracians,  marriage  customs  of  the,  87 
Tierra  del  Fuego,  marriages  in,  79 
Tinnd  Indians,  restrictions  on  marriage 

among  tho,  97 
Tipperahs  of  Chittagong,  their  notions 

respecting  the   spirits  of  the  dead, 

140 
Todas  of  the  Neilgherry  Hills,  their 

system  of  relationships,  64 

—  their  restrictions  on  marriage,  96 

—  their  worship  of  the  ox,  183 

—  never  pray,  254 

Tombstones  of  American  Indians,  33 
Tonga  Islands,  tattooing  in  the,  45 

—  practice  of  adoption  in  the,  65 

—  relationship  through  females  in,  107 

—  worship  of  animals  in  the,  182 

—  immortality  of  their  chiefs,  245 

—  their  notion  of  a  future  state,  247 

—  character  of  the  islanders,  256,  257 

—  their  absence  of  moral  feeling,  265 

—  and  of  the  idea  of  future  rewards 
and  punishments,  267 


WO>f 

Tonga  Islands — cnntbvicd. 

—  ceromonies  of  tlie  people  of,  306 
Totomism  defined,  119 

—  considered  as  stage  of  religious  pro- 
press,  169 

Totems,  or  crests,  importance  of,  98 
Tottigars  of  India,  system  of  relation* 

ship  of  the,  65 
Tree-worship,  universality  of,  192 
Tribe  marks  of  various  African  races,  44 
Tunguses,  marriage  by  capture  among 

tho,  77 

—  their  mode  of  divination,  142 

—  their  water- worship,  199 
Turkomans,  marriage  among  the,  56 
Tuski,  their  skill  in  drawing,  26 
Twins,  fancies  respecting,  20,  21 

—  cause  of  the  general  prejudice  against, 
21,  22 

Tyler,  Early  Ilistoi-j  of  Man,  vii. 
Tyro,  worship  of  a  statue  of  Hercules 
at,  231 


VEDDAIIS  of  Ceylon,  their  religious 
ideas,  159 
Vesali,     religious     character     of    the 

courtesans  of,  91 
Virgmia,  religious  dance  of  tho  nativeH 
of,  166 


on 


WALES,  marriage  customs  in,  83 
Warali  tribes,    restrictions 
marriage  in  the,  95 
Water- worship,  in  Europe,  198,  199 
Wells,  sacred,  in  Scotland,  198,  199 
Wergild  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  321 
AVhately,  Dr.,  Archbishop  of  Dublin, 
his  views  as  to    tho    condition    of 
savages,  325 

—  answers  to  his  arguments,  329 
Whydah,  an  idol  of,  178 

—  water-worship  at,  200 
Wills,  modern  origin  of,  312 
Witchcraft  among  savages,  148 

—  its  similarity  in  various  parts  of  the 
world,  148,  149 

—  the  belief  in,  shared  by  Europeans, 
150 

Wives,  custom  of  supplying  guests  with, 

88,  89 
Women,  position  of,   among    savages, 

51,68 

—  communities  in  which  women  have 
exercised  the  supremo  power,  67,  68 

—  origin  of  exogamy,  92 

—  causes  of  polygamy,  99 


380 


INDEX. 


WOM 


Women — continued, 
'—  ondogamy,  102 

—  inheritance  through  females,  105 

—  position  of  women  in  Aiistraliu,  3G3 
Wrestling  for  a  wife,  custom  of,  69 
Writing,  used  as  medicine,  16 

—  Burpriso  of  savages  at,  as  a  mode  of 
communication,  30 

—  picture-writing,  32 

Indian  bark  letters,  36-39 

—  application    of   art  to  purposes  of 
personal  decoration,  40 


rRKALAS  of  Southern  India,  mar- 
riage customs  of  the,  102 


ZEALANDERS,  Now.  their  tattooing, 
47 


ZEA  » 

Zealanders,  New — continued. 

—  their  courtship  and  marriiigo,  80 

—  endogamy  among  them,  103 

—  evil  spirits,  how  regarded  by  them, 
131 

—  sorcery  and  witchcraft  among  them, 
147,  148 

—  custom  of  hardening  tho  heart 
pity,  13 

—  causes  of  their  cannibalism,  13 

—  their  belief  in  tho    destruction 
brxly  and  spirit,  140 

—  their  mode  of  divination,  142 

—  their  worship  of  animals,  182 

—  red  a  sacred  colour  with  them,  207 

—  their  worship  of  tho  rainbow,  217 

—  their  belief  in  tho  destruction  of 
both  body  and  soul,  246 

—  their  absence  of  moral  feeling,  262 

—  their  three  tenures  of  land,  310 


to 


of 


iiiRO,  80 

03 

d  by  thorn, 

ttong  them, 

0  heart  to 

m,  13 

jruction    of 

142 

182 

thorn,  207 
bow,  217 
truction  of 

leling,  262 
id,  310 


Worh  qf  Herbert  Spencer  published  by  D.  Apphtcn  tfi  Co, 


The  I*hilo8ophy  of  Herbert  Spencer, 


THE 


PETNCIFLES   OF   BIOLOGY 

Vol.  I.    475  pagres.    (Now  in  prcss.l 


CONTENTS: 

Part  I. — TiiE  Data  of  Biology. 

L  Organic  Matter. — II.  Tlio  actions  of  Forces  on  Orc^anic  Matter. — III.  The 
re-actions  of  Organic  Matter  on  Forces. — IV.  Proximate  Definition  of 
Life. — V.  Tlie  Correspondence  between  Life  and  its  Circumstances.— 

VI.  Tlie  Degree  of  Life  varies  as  the  Degree  of  Correspondence.— 

VII.  The  Scope  of  Biology. 

Part  II. — The  Inductions  of  Biologt. 

I.  Growth. — II.  Development. — III.  Function. — IV.  Waste  and  Repair.— 
V.  Adaptation. — VI.  Individuality. — VII.  Genesis. — VIII.  Ileredity. — 

IX.  Variation. — X.  Genesis,  Heredity,  and  Variation — XI.  Classifica- 
tion.— XII.  Distribution. 

Part  III.— The  Evolution  of  Lnra 

L  Preliminary. — II.  General  Aspects  of  the  Special-creatlon-hypothesis. — 
III.  General  Aspects  of  the  Evolution-hypothesis. — IV.  The  Argnmenta 
from  Classification. — V.  The  Arguments  from  Embryology. — VI.  The 
Arguments  from  Morphology. — VII.  The  Arguments  f.-om  Distribution. 
— VIII.  How  is  Organic  Evolution  caused  ? — IX.  External  Factors.— 

X.  Internal  Factors. — XI.  Direct  Equilibration. — XII,  Indirect  Equili 
bration. — XIII.  The  Cooperation  of  the  Factors. — XIV.  The  Convcrg 
ence  of  the  Evidences. 


All  these  works  are  rich  in  materials  for  forming  Intellisent  opinions,  even  where 
we  arc  unable  to  agree  with  tliose  put  forth  by  the  author.  Much  may  be  Icamsd  from 
Jieni  in  departments  in  which  our  common  Educational  system  is  very  deficient.  The 
active  citizen  may  derive  from  them  accurate  systematized  information  concerning  his 
highest  duties  to  society,  and  the  principles  on  which  they  arc  based.  He  may  gain 
eleurer  notions  of  the  value  and  beaiing  of  evidence,  and  be  better  able  to  distinguish 
between  facts  and  inferences.  He  may  find  common  things  suggestive  of  wiser  thought 
—nay,  we  will  venture  to  say  of  truer  emotion — than  before.  By  gi  vlng  as  fuller  rcnll- 
lations  of  liberty  and  justice  his  writings  will  tend  to  increase  onr  self-reliance  in  the 
great  emerfcncy  of  civilization  to  which  we  have  been  summoned.— Ji/untic  MontJiht 


Wotka  of  Ilvrltert  Spnicrr  pubHnhcd  by  D.  Appldon  d'  Ok. 


A  NEW  SYSTEM  OF  PIIILOSOrilY. 

FIRST   PRINCIPLES. 

1  VoL    IjATge  12mo.    616  Paees.    Frioo  $2  60. 

Contents : 
Part  FinsT. — 27ie  Unknowahle. 

C/iiaptci  1.  Relif^ion  and  Science;  II.  Ultimate  Religious  Ideaii;  lU. 
Oltiniate  Sdentiac  Ideas;  IV,  The  llclativity  of  all  Knowledge;  V.  Th« 
Reconcillatiun. 

Part  Second. — Zaic«  of  the  Khowable. 

I.  Laws  in  General;  II.  The  Law  of  Evolution;  III.  The  same  con- 
tinued; IV.  The  Causes  of  Evolution;  V.  Space,  Time,  Matter,  Motion,  and 
Force ;  VI.  The  Indestructibility  of  Matter ;  VII.  The  Continuity  of  Motion  ; 
VIII.  The  Persistence  of  Force ;  IX.  The  Correlation  and  Equivalence  of 
Forces;  X.  The  Direction .  f  Motion ;  XL  The  Khythm  of  Motion;  XIL  The 
Conditions  Essential  to  Evolution ;  XIII.  The  Instability  of  the  Homoge- 
neous ;  XIV.  The  Multiplication  of  Eflccts ;  XV.  Differentiation  and  Inte- 
gration ;  XVI.  Equilibration ;  XVIL  Summary  and  Conclusion. 

In  the  first  part  of  this  work  Mr.  Spencer  defines  the  province,  limits,  and 
relations  of  religion  and  science,  and  determines  the  legitimate  scope  of 
philosophy. 

In  part  second  he  unfolds  those  fundamental  principles  which  have  been 
arrived  at  within  the  sphere  of  the  knowable ;  which  are  true  of  all  orders 
of  phenonema,  and  thus  constitute  the  foundation  of  all  philosophy.  The 
law  of  Evolution,  Mr.  Spencer  mamtains  to  be  universal,  a"d  he  has  hero 
worked  it  out  as  the  basis  of  his  S'  stem. 

These  First  Principles  are  the  foundation  of  a  system  of  Philosophy 
bolder,  more  elaborate,  and  comprehensive  perhaps,  than  any  other  which 
oat  been  hitherto  designed  in  England. — British  Quarterly  Review, 

A  work  lofty  in  aim  and  remarkable  in  execution. — CorrJall  Magadnt. 

In  the  works  of  Herbert  Spencer  we  have  the  rudiments  of  a  posiUve 
Theology,  and  an  immense  step  toward  the  perfection  of  the  science  of  Tsj- 
^lAo^.— Christian  Examiner. 

If  we  mistake  not,  in  spite  of  the  very  negative  character  of  his  own  re- 
mits, he  has  foreshadowed  some  strong  arguments  for  the  doctrine  of  a  pout 
live  Christian  Theology. — New  Englander. 

As  far  as  the  frontiers  of  knowledge,  where  the  Intollect  may  go,  thero  Ii 
to  living  man  whose  guidance  may  more  safely  be  trusted.— -dtionlii 
Mmthln. 


Worts  of  ITtrbert  Spencer  puhlinhed  by  D.  Appldon  A  Co. 


la  One  Yolame,  8vo.,  Cloth. 


Price    $2.59. 


SOCIAL    STATICS; 

OR, 

TlIK    CONDITIONr^   ESSENTIAL  TO    Irr^fAN    ITArPINESS    BPECl. 
riKD,  AND  THE  FlltaT  OF  THEM  DEVELOrED. 

BY     UERBKRT    STEXCER. 


nnd 


OPIXIOyS  OF  TUB  PRESS. 

Mr.  Bpeneor,  In  his  ablo  and  logical  work  on  "  Social  Statics  '*....  Edin- 
turgh  Review. 

It  deserves  very  high  pralso  fi)r  the  nhllity,  clearnosR,  and  foroo  with  wliich 
It  is  written,  and  wliiuh  entitle  it  to  thu  churuutor,  now  so  rare,  of  a  really  sub- 
stantial book.— A^ortA  Britiah  B^iew. 

A  rcnrjarkablo  work Mr.  Spencer  exhibits,  nnd  exhibits  with  ro- 

mnrkable  force  and  clearness,  many  social  eqnuIizatioD»  nf  a  JiiHt  and  right 
species  which  roinain  yet  to  be  effected.— -B/'J<j«A  Quarterly  Review. 

An  inquiry  conducted  throughout  with  clearness,  good  temper,  and  strict 

logic We  shall  be  mistaken  if  this  book  do  not  assist  in  organising  that 

huge  mass  of  thought  which,  for  want  of  a  more  specific  name,  is  now  called 
Liberal  Opinion. — Athencew  . 

It  is  the  most  eloquent,  the  most  interesting,  the  most  clearly-expressed  and 
logically-reasoned  work,  with  views  the  most  original,  that  has  appeared  in  the 
science  of  social  polity.— Zi^e/'ory  Gaaette. 

The  author  of  the  present  work  is  no  ordinary  thinker,  and  no  ordinary  wri- 
ter;  and  he  gives  us,  in  language  that  sparkles  with  beauties,  and  in  reasoning 
at  once  novel  and  elaborate,  precise  and  logical,  a  very  comprehensive  nnd 

complete  exposition  of  the  rights  of  men  in  society The  book  will 

mark  an  epoch  in  the  literature  of  scientific  morality. — Economitit. 

We  remember  no  work  on  ethics  since  that  of  Spinoza  to  be  compared  with 
it  in  the  simplicity  of  its  premises,  and  the  logical  rigour  with  which  a  com- 
plete system  of  scientific  ethics  is  evolved  from  them A  work  at  onco 

80  scientific  in  spirit  and  method,  and  so  popular  in  execution,  wo  shall  look  in 
vain  for  through  libraries  of  political  philosophy. — Leader. 

The  careful  reading  wo  have  given  it  has  both  afforded  us  intense  pleasure, 
and  rendered  it  a  duty  to  express,  with  unusual  emphasis,  our  opinion  of  its 
great  ability  and  excellence. — Nonconformist. 


Naw  York:  D.  Appleton  and  Company. 


I 

I 


.'. 


Worla  of  Urrhcrl  Sj)ctwcr  puhlUhed  by  D.  Ap/Jtttm  tfr  Co. 

ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  UNIVERSAL  rROGRESS. 

A  SERIES  OF  DISCUSSIONS. 
1  Vol     Larare  12mo.    470  Fasroa.    Prico    02.50, 

CONTKNTS : 

i^merican  Notice  of  Spcnccr'3  New  S}»tcm  of  riillosoiiliy. 
I.    Progress  :  its  Law  and  Caupc. 
II     Manners  and  Fashion. 

III.  The  Genesis  of  Scieneo. 

IV.  The  Physiology  of  Laughter. 

V.  Tlio  Origin  and  Function  of  Music. 

VI.  The  Nebular  Hypothesis. 

VII.  Bain  on  the  Emotions  and  the  Will. 

VII L  Illogical  Geology. 

IX.  The  Development  Hypothc.'<is. 

X.  The  Social  Organism. 

XI.  Use  and  Beauty. 

XII.  The  Sources  of  Architectural  Types. 

XIII.  The  Use  of  Anthropomorphism. 

These  Essays  constitute  a  body  of  massive  and  original  thought  upon  a 
large  variety  of  important  topics,  and  will  be  read  with  pleasure  by  all  who 
appreciate  a  bold  and  powerful  treatment  of  ftmdamental  themes.  The 
general  thought  which  pervades  this  book  is  beyond  doubt  the  most  impor- 
tant that  the  human  mil  l  has  yet  reached. — N.  Y.  Independent, 

Those  who  have  re  id  the  work  on  Education,  will  remember  the  ana- 
lytic tendency  of  the  author's  mind — his  clear  perception  and  admirable  eX' 
position  of  first  principles — his  wide  grasp  of  facts — his  lucid  and  vigorous 
■tyle,  and  the  constant  and  controlling  bearing  of  the  discussion  on  practical 
results.  These  traits  characterize  all  Mr.  Spencer's  writings,  and  mark,  in 
an  eminent  degree,  the  present  volume. — N.  Y.  Tribune. 

We  regard  the  distinguishing  feature  of  this  work  to  be  the  peculiarly 
Interesting  character  of  its  matter  to  the  general  reader.  This  is  a  great 
literary  as  well  as  philosophic  triumph.  In  the  evolution  of  a  system  of 
Philosophy  which  demands  serious  attention,  and  a  keen  exercise  of  the  in- 
tellect to  fathom  and  appreciate,  he  has  mingled  muclj  that  is  really  popular 
and  entertsuning. — Rochester  DeinocraL 


'0. 


illESS. 


in 


4 


yVorh  fiubla/uJ  bu  U  A/tj^ietun  d  Co. 


THE  COJIIIKLATION  Ai\D  CONSERVATION 


or 


FOECES. 

i    SfclMKS    (.F  KXrosiTIOXS    DY  OHOVR,   MAYER,   IIKLMIIOLTO, 


WITH 


AN    INTKODUCTION. 


BY  E.  L.  Y0UMAN8 


t  upon  a 
7  all  wlio 
es.  The 
3t  impor- 

the  ana- 
able  cx' 
vigoroui 
practical 
nark,  io 

Jculiarly 
a  great 
stem  of 
the  in- 
populw 


The  work  embraces : 

I.~TITE  CORRELATION   OF  PHYSICAL  FORCES.     Bt 
"W.  R.  Gboye.    (The  complete  work.) 

n.-CELESTIAL  DYNAMICS.    By  Dn.  J.  ,^  Matk«. 

IIL-THE  INTERACTION  OF  FORCES.     By  P«of.  IIblm- 
notxz. 

IV. -THE    CONNECTION    AND    EQUIVALENCE    OF 
FORCES.    By  Prof.  Liebio. 

V.-ON   THE    CONSERVATION   OF   FORCE.      Br  Da. 
Faraday. 

VL-ON  THE  CORRELATION  OF  PHYSICAL  AND  VJ 
TAL  FORCES.    By  Dr.  C!arpenteb. 


D.  APPLETON  &  CO.'S  PUBLICATIONS. 


IIIBTOIIY 


» 


1^:: 


1 1' 


OF 


CIVILIZATION  IN  ENGLAND. 

By   RENRT   THOMAS    BUCKLE^ 
S  "Vols.    8vo,  Cloth.     $Q. 


{From  the  Boston  Journal.) 

*'  Singularly  acute,  possessed  of  rare  analytical  power,  imaginative  but  not 
fcnciful,  unwearied  in  research,  and  gifted  >.  ith  wonderful  talent  in  arranging 
and  moulding  his  material,  the  author  is  as  fascinating  as  he  is  learned.  His 
erudition  is  immense— so  immense  as  not  to  bo  cumbersome.  It  is  the  result 
of  a  long  and  steady  growth— a  part  of  himself. 

{From  iM  Chicago  Eornt  Journal.) 

"The  master-stroke  of  the  first  volume  is  the  author's  skill  and  success  in 
delineating  the  train  of  causes  which  resulted  in  the  early  French  Kcvolution 
^1793).  These  causes,  with  their  combinations,  are  so  arranged  that  the  mind 
of  the  reader  is  prepared  for  results  not  very  unlike  such  as  actually  occurred, 
korrible  as  they  were. 

{From  the  Boston  Transcript.) 

"His  first  volume  evinces  a  clear  head,  an  intrepid  heart,  and  an  honest  pur- 
pose. A  true  kind  of  induction  characterizes  it  Indeed  it  is  almost  a  new 
reselation,  comprising  the  fidelity  of  Gibbon,  the  comprehensiveness  of  Hum- 
boldt, and  the  fascination  of  Macaulay." 

{From  ffie  If.  T.  Daily  Times.) 

"We  have  read  Mr.  Buckle's  volumes  with  the  deepest  interest.  We  ow» 
him  a  profound  debt  of  gratitude.  His  influence  on  the  thought  of  the  present 
age  cannot  but  bo  enormous,  and  if  he  gives  us  no  more  than  we  already  have 
in  the  two  volumes  of  the  magnus  opus,  he  will  still  be  classed  among  tba 
fathers  and  founders  of  the  Science  of  History." 

{From  (he  Newark  Daily  Advertiser.)  * 

"The  book  is  a  treat,  and  even  'mid  the  din  of  battle  it  will  be  extensively 
read,  for  it  bears  no  little  upon  our  own  selves,  our  country,  and  its  futurt  ex- 
Isttace  and  progress." 


J 


D.  APPLETON  &  CO.'S  PUBLICATIOXS. 


ON 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  SPECIES 


BT 


Means  of  Natural  Selection ; 

OE, 

THE  PRESEPa'ATIO.^  OF  FAVORED  RACES 

'  IN   TUB 

STRUGGLE  FOR  LIFE. 

BT 

One  Volume.    12mo.    doth,  $2.00. 


-♦♦^- 


"  His  first  point  is  to  show  that  species  are  in  many  cases  not  well 
defined,  and  that  the  whole  order  of  natural  history  seems  to  1 ! 
state  of  mutation,  by  reason  of  constant  variation?  Thus  ev^.',  L: 
domest,cat,on   important  changes  maybe  introduced  by  i  ter    o^'l 
by  selection  of  the  best  individuals  for  proparration  bv  L.  l'"''"'"""' 
marked  by  however  slight,  but  favorabl  pecutn'tie'  '  '""^^^ 

"His  second  point  is  what  he  terms  the  universal  and  necessarv 
struggle  for  existence.  This  follows  from  the  high  geometrbal  ratio 
of  mcrease  common  to  all  beings.  If  there  wL  no  cltas^opt^^^ 
any  one  of  the  existing  species  would  be  sufficiently  nuterout  a 
thC X       '""  ''  '''''  *'^  "^'"'^  '^'''^  '^  ^^^  exkion  of  ev"; 

iJJl^ltlfl-  '"  V""'  *^"'*  *'^"  ^^'-^'^^^^  '^  ^'^'^'^^  V  the 
ol  ant^  .       ■     ^''"  '^''  ^"«^^  •^^  ^"«^^^^'«  -»™«1«  rnay  be 

o  p  o;t:z"t  r'  r^'^'^'  '^  ^'^^^^'"-^  *^'«  ^-^  -^--^^-^'^ 

vl  ofedoma  "of  ,"  'r°"  *'^  ""^  '^'^^'>""«  *«  '>^-r  "P-  the 

whole  domam  of  ammal  and  vegetable  life.     She  seizes  at  once  upon 

any  shght  variation  that  is  favorable,  and  perpetuates  it;   in  the  urd- 

^^pressure.  any  variation  that  is  i:^uriou^  is  immedlat^t:;;; L 


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